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KOM5111 COMMUNICATION THEORY
THIRD MEETING LECTURE
SECTION 3:
MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
Sunday, 9 December 2012
Review of first and second-meeting lectures
The following communication theories have
been discussed during the first and second
meeting lectures:
1.
Berlo’s Theory
2.
Schramm’s Theory
3.
Westley Maclean Theory
4.
Agenda Setting Theory
5.
Aristotle Theory of Persuasion
6.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
7.
Systems Theory of Communication
Today’s Lecture Agenda
The following mass communication theories
will be discussed today:
1. Development of Mass Comm Theory
2. Cultivation Theory (Teori Penyuburan)
3. Two Step Flow Theory
4. Media Violence Theory
5. Limited Media Effects Theory
6. Normative Media Theory
a. Authoritarian Media Theory
b. Libertarian Media Theory
c. Social Responsibility Theory
5 general assumptions (theory) about the effect
of Mass Media on society
Assumption 1
“Media content has limited impact on
audiences because its’ only make-believe;
people know it isn’t real”
(Baran, S. 2004:416)
Assumption 2
“Media content has limited impact on
audiences because it is only play or just
entertainment”
(Baran, S. 2004:416)
Assumption 3
“If media have any effects at all, they are not
the media’s fault; media simply hold a mirror to
society and reflect the status quo, showing us
and our world as they already are”
(Baran, S. 2004:417)
Assumption 4
“If media have any effect at all, it is only to
reinforce pre-existing values and beliefs.
Family, church, school and other socializing
agents have much more influence”
(Baran, S. 2004:418)
Assumption 5
“If media have any effects at all, they are only
on the unimportant things in our lives, such as
fads and fashions”
(Baran, S. 2004:418)
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
Understanding 4 General Concepts of
Mass Communication Theory
1. There is no one mass communication theory
(Baran, S. 2004:418)
2. Mass communication theories are often
borrowed from other fields of science
(Baran, S. 2004:418)
3. Mass communication theories are human
constructions (Baran, S. 2004:418)
4. Mass communication theories are dynamic
(Baran, S. 2004:418)
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
4 Stages in the Development of Mass
Communication Theory
(Salleh & Saiful Nujaimi Abd. Rahman 2008:79)
1. Mass Society Era (1920s – 1940s)
2. Limited Media Effects Era / Scientific
Perspective Era (1950s – 1970s)
3. Cultural Research Era (1960s –
present)
4. Medium Media Effects (1970s –
present)
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
1. Mass Society Era (1920s – 1940s)
- assumptions that mass media had a direct
impact on the society
- mass media was first introduced to society
in early 1920s
- people tend to believe messages on mass
media (television, radio and films)
- theory associated with this era: Magic Bullet
Theory (Hypodermic Needle Theory)
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY:
The Magic Bullet Theory
Magic Bullet Theory
- The Magic Bullet Theory, also known as
hypodermic needle theory was founded by Katz
& Lazarsfeld in 1955
- assumptions of theory: mass media, especially
television has a direct and immediate effect
(negative) on the audience
- audience tend to believe everything they see on
television (e.g., UFO landing on earth)
- Critique on the theory: theory assumptions
applicable in 1920s, but not during present
times (except on children)
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
2. Limited Media Effects Era / Scientific
Perspective Era (1950s – 1970s)
- limited media effects (Era Kesan Terhad) was
developed from the research conducted by
Lazarsfeld, Berelson & Gaudet (1944) in Erie
Country, Ohio, USA
- assumption of theory: mass media (especially
television) on their own had minimal effect on the
audience
- theory associated with this era: Two-Step Flow
Theory
- often compared with the Magic Bullet Theory
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
- assumption of theory: mass media (television)
requires a third element to have bigger
effect/impact on audience
- effect of mass media through two stages:
1. from mass media to opinion leaders
2. from opinion leaders to society
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
- Criteria of Opinion Leaders:
*
Credible
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Authoritative
Influential
In possess of power
Respected
Admired
Knowledgeable
Wealthy
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
3. Cultural Research Era (1960s – present)
- the cultural research era was developed in
Europe in 1960s to present
- assumptions of theory: mass media
(especially television and radio) are owned
and operated by the elit group (groups with
wealth, power and autonomy)
- elit group use mass media for their own
advantage (propaganda)
- main focus of theory: how mass media is
used to dominate other sectors of society
- theory associated with this era: cultural
theory, critical theory & social reality
construction theory
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
4. Medium Media Effects Era (1970s – present)
(Media Violence Theory)
- medium effect theory was developed based on
the studies conducted by Iyengar and Kinder
(1986)
- assumptions of theory: mass media have some
level of effect/impact on certain groups of
audience
- effect of mass media is felt based on long-term
usage of media
- effect of mass media is mostly felt by children
- a number of studies either support or contradict
the assumptions made by this theory
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
Study 1: Payne Fund (1930)
- focus of study on the film ‘Gangster’ on the
antisocial behaviour of viewers
- findings of study: existence of positive
significant relationship between viewing
‘Gangster’ movie and the development of
antisocial behaviour among youths in USA
- antisocial behaviour among youths and
teenagers are mostly associated with violence
on the mass media (television and films)
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
Study 2: William H. Short (year of study unknown)
- studied on children television viewing habits
- findings of study: children who watch television
will develop a certain form of change in their
behaviour
- the change of behaviour can be either positive or
negative, depending on the programs that they
watch
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
Study 3: Ruth Peterson & L.L. Thurstone (1933)
- conducted 11 separate studies to examine the
behavioural change of children who watched
films on war, crime and African American
societies in America
- findings of the study: children will develop a
negative perceptions among African American
societies and on wars and crimes
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
Study 4: Mary Preston (1941)
- conducted studies on reactions and behaviours
of children who watched horror and crimerelated movies
- findings of the study: children tend to develop
negative behavioural changes after watching
horror and movies on crime and they will
develop a sense of fear and aggressive
behaviour
- findings also revealed that horror movies have
lesser impact on children from wealthy families
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
Study 5: Schramm, Lyle & Parker (1961)
- conducted studies on violence on mass media
(television and films)
- findings of the study: mass media is believed to
have contributed to violence behaviour of
viewers, but mass media is NOT the main cause
of violence behaviour of viewers
- effects of violence on mass media is less
intensive on children who received good and
proper upbringing
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
Study 6: Catharsis (Seymour Feshbach, 1970)
- conducted studies on the effect of violence on
mass media (television and films) on viewers
- findings of the study: the images of violence on
mass media does not have a significant effect on
viewers, except to certain categories of children
- two main findings of study:
1. revealed that violence on mass media
provides a sense of ‘escapism’ from negative
influence for viewers
2. viewers learn how to engage in violence acts
and violence behaviour
DEVELOPMENT OF MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY
Study 5: Schramm, Lyle & Parker (1961)
- conducted studies on violence on mass media
(television and films)
- findings of the study: mass media is believed to
have contributed to violence behaviour of
viewers, but mass media is NOT the main cause
of violence behaviour of viewers
- effects of violence on mass media is less
intensive on children who received good and
proper upbringing
CULTIVATION THEORY
- The Cultivation Theory was developed by
George Gerbner, University Annenberg,
Pennsylvania in 1973
- Cultivation Theory examines the relationship
between extent of television viewing and
conception of reality
- assumption 1: heavy television viewers will be
more likely to perceive the real world in ways
that reflect the most stable and recurrent
patterns of portrayals in the television world
CULTIVATION THEORY
- assumption 2: television is a form of
storytelling, television determines how society
see the world through these stories
- assumption 3: television is seen to cultivate a
certain perspective or belief system among all
of its viewers.
- assumption 4: heavy viewers of television tend
to see the world as television portrays it; light
viewers of television form their own opinions
about the world from a variety of sources and
do not readily accept the portrayals of
television
CULTIVATION THEORY
- assumption 5: heavy viewers of television tend
to mistrust people more than do light viewers
- assumption 6: repeated exposure of television
viewing is capable of changing the belief
systems of the viewers
- assumption 7: heavy television viewers do not
get as much varied information about the
world as do light television viewers
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY
Definition of Normative Media Theory:
“teori normatif media adalah berkaitan dengan
pengaruh nilai dan norma sesuatu sistem
masyarakat terhadap operasi media”
(Salleh & Saiful Nujaimi Abd. Rahman 2008:97)
“normative media theory refers to the society’s
norm and ethical influence on media operation”
(translation Mohd Nizam Osman 2008)
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY
Three (3) Categories of Normative Media Theory:
1. Authoritarian Media Theory
2. Libertarian Media Theory
3. Social Responsibility Theory
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY
1. Authoritarian Media Theory
- assumption of theory: the operation and
function of media institutions is top down
- the theory assumes the media content is
heavily regulated by the government; to
ensure continuous support for the
government
- policies concerning the operation of the
media industries in a particular country is
determined and regulated by the government
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY
5 Principles of Authoritarian Media Theory
1
media institutions are not allowed to publish
news items which are against the government
2
media institutions should respect the needs of
the media consumers
3
media institutions are not allowed to, in any
way attack or defame the government as it is
considered an act of crime
4
news items which have been censored are
meant to provide support for the government
5
media reporters do not have the freedom and
liberty to sensor or publish news items based
on their own free will
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY:
Additional information: 7 DEADLY SINS OF THE MASS
MEDIA (Tan Sri Dato’ Dr. Mazlan Nordin, 2007) – will
not be asked in the exam
7 DEADLY SINS OF THE MASS MEDIA
1. DISTORTION (MEMUTARBELITKAN
MAKLUMAT)
2. WORSHIPPING FALSE IMAGES
(MEMBESAR-BESARKAN SESUATU
YANG TIDAK BENAR)
3. INVASION OF PRIVACY
(MENCEROBOHI HAK PERIBADI SESEORANG)
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY:
7 DEADLY SINS OF THE MASS MEDIA (Tan Sri Dato’ Dr. Mazlan Nordin,
2007)
4. CHARACTER ASSISINATION
(MENJATUHKAN IMEJ SESEORANG)
5. EXPLOITATION OF SEX
(EXPLOITASI SEKS)
6. POISONING OF CHILDREN’S MIND
(MERACUNI PEMIKIRAN KANAK-KANAK)
7. ABUSE OF POWER BY THE MEDIA
(MENYALAHGUNA KUASA OLEH MEDIA)
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY
2. Libertarian Media Theory
- theory was developed in the early 18th century
- people begin to justify action and search for
consensual truth
- focus of theory is based on rational thinking
- truth is not determined by the elite group, but
by the general public
- therefore, the theory suggests that the media
institutions should be free from the influence
and control of the government (elite group)
- media institutions should report any issues
concerning government and elite groups freely
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY
5 Principles of Libertarian Media Theory
1. the printing and publication of newspapers
should be completely free from the influence
of the government
2. the printing and publication of newspapers
should be owned by individuals or groups
whom should be free to operate without the
influence or control from the government
3. legal action should not be taken against
media institutions for publishing news
articles which are against the government
4. media institutions should be free to decide
what news articles to be published
5. providing freedom to media institutions to
import/export news information to/from any
countries
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY
3. Social Responsibility Theory
- theory was developed in the 20th century
- theory was developed to curb ‘monopoly’ on
media institutions by individuals or groups
- focus of theory: media institutions should be
given the freedom to publish news articles, but
media institutions should be responsible for
the news articles they publish
- society should be given the rights to evaluate
news articles and take legal action against
media institutions if deemed necessary
NORMATIVE MEDIA THEORY
5 Principles of Social Responsibility Theory
1. media institutions should be fully responsible
as an agent for social development
2. the news articles publish by media
institutions should be professional, accurate
and focusing on social aspects of society
3. media institutions should not be involved in
violence or crime-related activities and
should avoid these activities from occurring
4. The public should be given some space in the
newspapers to voice their opinion about
certain issues
5. Journalists and media institutions have
responsibility on the society and country
END THIRD LECTURE
@Dr. Mohd Nizam Osman
DECEMBER 2012