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INTRODUCTION ► Greeks began to speculate metaphysical questions as the origin and nature of the universe As evidenced by the poems of Homer ►Homer relied on mythology to provide the answers ► Overtime, philosophers would ultimately discard religious mythology as a means to answer these questions and develop a secular methodology based on observation, logic, and semantics With this development came the birth of philosophy BIRTH OF PHILOSOPHY ► originated in Greek city states along the coast of Asia Minor around 600 BC Not as bound by tradition as city-states on mainland Greece Trade brought contact with the ancient science and the Middle Eastern ideas These city-state were open to intellectual innovation and speculation more than counterparts on the mainland THALES OF MILETUS ► ► ► Born around 625 BC well-known astronomer and correctly predicted a solar eclipse developed theories about size and orbits of the sun and moon Learned geometry and engineering in Egypt THALES’ THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE ► Divided all matter in the universe into two categories Material objects ►Which had their origin in water Animate spirits ►Had the ability to move on their own ► Although his theory was wrong, he laid a foundation Saw universe as tangible, finite, and knowable ►Not mysterious or nebulous only gods could understand OPENING THE DOOR Asserted universe could be known by men ►rejected theological and mythological interpretations of the universe ►sought rational explanations ►Opened door for new series of questions What is man and what is the best society for man? What is truth and how can one recognize it? What is virtue and how can one acquire it? THE SOPHISTS ► Quickly commercialized spirit of intellectual liberation (marketplace of ideas) Set up philosophical training up as teachers of various fields ►Basic premise: men were capable of self-improvement through education and education would make men more successful ►Idea of human progress through one’s own efforts Popular and concentrated in Athens RHETORIC ► Most popular sophists taught rhetoric Rhetoric Promised: most humble man on street could speak in the Assembly and law courts He could confound opponents, and reap financial benefits of public life ► Teachers taught how to win any arguments, regardless of the side they took No truth is universally valid then no universal standards ►Good and evil, truth and falsehood were matters of individual judgment MORE SOPHIST ARGUMENTS ► ► Attacked traditional religious and moral values of Athenian society argued that religion was useless others asserted religion as a human invention Argued that the law did not come from the gods, nor based on any objective or universal standard of justice and good law was something made by the most powerful citizens for their own benefit Dangerous implications ►Law did not need to be obeyed since it rested on no higher principle than might Disruptive of community life stressed the selfish interests of individual over general welfare STILL MORE SOPHIST ARGUMENTS ► Some attacked Athenian emphasis on moderation and self-discipline Urged people should maximize pleasure and destroy traditions that restricted them ►Traditions were only invented by the weak to enslave nobler nations CRISIS WITHIN ATHENS ► Radical sophists triggered intellectual and spiritual crisis in Athens doctrines encouraged ► disrespect and disobedience to the law ► neglect of civic duty ► elfish individualism ► Dangerously weakened community bonds during Peloponnesian War Worried conservative Athenians Wanted to restore authority of law and respect for moral values by renewing allegiance to traditions SOCRATES ► Employed intellectual methodology to Sophist’s questions they had neglected or ignored ► 469-399 BC Born into middle class began adult life as a stone mason ►Soon gave this up to devote life to finding out what was the right way to conduct one’s life CRITICISM OF THE SOPHISTS ► Felt that sophists had taught skills but had no insight into the questions that really mattered What is the purpose of life? What are the values by which man should live? How does man perfect his character? ► Felt sophists had attacked old system of beliefs but had not provided a constructive replacement CENTRAL CONCERN ► Central concern: perfection of individual human character moral values attained when the individual regulated his life according to objective standards arrived through rational reflection When reason becomes guiding and ruling agency of logic, an individual can ascertain the values necessary to live a good and just life True education shapes character Discourse (critical use of reason) leads to discovery of values (the construct of values) Necessity of REASON ► Sophists sought to subject all human beliefs and behavior to the clear light of reason Thus they would remove ethics from the realm of authority, tradition, dogma, superstition, and myth Reason was the only proper guide to the most critical problem of human existence = good and evil!!! Means of REASON ► Socrates asserts rational inquiry was the foundational tool to: to test opinions ► weigh the merit of ideas ► alter beliefs on the basis of knowledge ► when people engaged in critical selfexamination they would inherently strive to perfect their character Impact: ►liberation of self from accumulated traditions and opinions based on one’s conduct ►instead convictions were rationally defend precepts SOCRATIC INQUIRY ► Assumed: Knowledge was innate in the human mind To extract it out into the conscious, he developed a question-and-answer method ► Attracted loyal audience of young men Mostly from well-off families Encouraged them to debate the most fundamental concepts of human behavior in an attempt to define the guidelines of ethical conduct SOCRATIC METHOD ► ► Began inquiry with searching questions into traditional assumptions that everyone took for granted Proceed to show that these assumptions were rooted more in custom and prejudice than logic ► Inquiry deepened with more questions into developing more precise definitions concepts: piety, justice, good, and evil SOCRATIC METHOD III ► Never formulated rules of conduct Believed giving followers the habits of rigorous questioning and logical reasoning created a mentality that could perceive correct conduct under all conditions ATTITUDES TOWARDS SOCRATES ► Dismissed as an eccentric sophist fanatical loyalty of students toward him Hated by Political leaders => they questioned his ability and judgment The critique of the state too easily could bring a challenge of the state ultimately he was undone Student’s Position on Pelophonesian War ► ► Many students were enchanted by his criticism of their elders and the establishment However, they did not embrace inquiry of creative alternatives They also affected an ill-disguised admiration for Sparta during the Peloponnesian War DEATH OF SOCRATES ► After war was over, some enemies brought Socrates to trial on charges of “corrupting the youth of Athens” denied charges but refused to grovel and beg for forgiveness ►Instead he boldly spelled out what he stood for Found guilty and ordered to kill himself by drinking hemlock ►Would have received lighter sentence if he acquiesced or appeased jurors He refused to alter his principles, even under the threat of death PLATO ► ► In 387, Plato founded the Academy in Athens: a training ground for young men from all over Greece to learn the Socratic Method Plato had more ambitious goal than Socrates’ moral regeneration of the individual Wanted to arrange political life according to rational rules ►Argued: the quest for personal morality could not succeed unless the community was also transformed on the basis of reason The ‘Marketplace’ of Ideas ► Socrates taught universal standards of right and justice exist, and could be found through application of reason ► Plato insisted on the existence of a higher world of reality One independent from the everyday world of things The “World of Ideas” (or “Forms”) Unchanging, eternal, absolute, and universal standards of beauty, justice, and truth To know these forms was to know the truth One lived according to these standards = to live the good life The ‘Marketplace’ of Ideas II ► ► ► Truth resides in the World of Ideas – not in the world of the senses People form opinions of beauty or justice from observing what they think is beautiful or just in the material world Since nothing is perfect in the material world, this opinion is distorted and imperfect One who aspires to true knowledge must go beyond sensory perception and try to grasp with their mind the Idea of Beauty or Justice in the World of Ideas Plato saw the material world as unstable, transitory, and imperfect while the World of Ideas was eternal and universally valid True wisdom is obtained through knowledge of the Ideas, not the imperfect reflection of these Ideas that we perceive with the senses ARISTOTLE ► ► ► 384 – 322 BCE Studied in Plato’s Academy for 20 years Left to become tutor to Alexander the Great Returned after Alexander became ruler and founded Lyceum Extraordinary ranges of interests and intellect Leading expert of time in all subjects except mathematics Wrote scores of books on various topics: art, logic, ethics, metaphysics, psychology, politics, physics, biology and natural history Division of the Three Sciences Theoretical ► ► Contemplation of things that are permanent and cannot be “otherwise.” In the theoretical sciences, understanding is pursued for its own sake. Example: metaphysics and logic. Practical ► ► Knowledge of things that can be “otherwise” or variable given human freedom, choice, and circumstance. Example: politics, ethics. Productive ► ► Knowledge of rational production or the science of making, producing things. Example: technological know-how, carpentry, pottery. The productive sciences result in the making of some “product.” ARISTOTLE MATERIALISM I ► Renewed confidence in sense perception Which Plato had dismissed as an erroneous way to obtain knowledge Respected knowledge obtained through the senses Retained stress on universal principles ►But wanted them to be derived from human experience with the material world ARISTOTLE MATERIALISM II ► Thought Plato’s notion of an independent and separate World of Ideas beyond space and time was contrary to common sense To comprehend reality, one should not try to escape to another world Believed Plato had undervalued the world of facts and objects revealed through the senses ARISTOTLE MATERIALISM III ► Perfect models existed within material things themselves Through human experience with such things as men, horses, and red objects, the essence of man, horse, and red could be discovered through reason For Plato, perfect models existed independently of particular objects ►For Aristotle, universal ideas could not be determined without examination of particular things through the senses ARISTOTLE ETHICS I ► ► Believed knowledge of ethics was possible and that it had to be based on reason Ethical thought derived from a realistic appraisal of human nature and a common sense attitude towards life The “good life” meant making intelligent decisions when confronted with specific problems ► ► ARISTOTLE ETHICS II People could achieve happiness when they applied knowledge relevantly to life and when their behavior was governed by intelligence Not by whim, tradition, or authority Realized passionate element within the human personality could not be completely eradicated To surrender to one’s passions was to sink to that of animals But to deny the passions was foolish and an unreasonable rejection of human nature Argued people could regulate passions through rigorous training, and achieve virtue by avoiding extreme behavior and chose moderation SUMMARY ► ► Believed that contemplative life of the philosopher would yield perfect happiness But he did not demand more from a person than human nature would allow ►Did not set impossible standards but recognized that all persons cannot pursue life of contemplation ►But all persons could experience a good life by applying reason to human affairs Philosophy came down to earth with Aristotle and spoke to needs and concerns of all people Not just a highly educated elite Set the stage for the individualistic philosophies of the Hellenistic Age