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LG598 – MDev (p/t) The Politics of Development Participation, gender and sustainable development February 27th, 2011 Proposed outline for day 10.00-10.30 10.30-11.00 11.00-11.15 11.15-11.30 11.30-12.00 12.00-12.45 Discussion on key points from discussion forum reading Presentation on participatory approaches Discussion / Q&A COFFEE Participation in practice… Group exercises Feedback from groups and discussion 12.45-1.45 LUNCH 1.45-2.45 Presentation on gender and sustainable development/climate change approaches Group work on challenges in mainstreaming these approaches Feedback from groups Overview of material for upcoming discussion forum General overview and evaluation of how things going to date 2.45-3.10 3.10-3.30 3.30-3.45 3.45-4.00 Participatory development What comes to be labelled ‘participation’ – and by whom – is a deeply political issue (Cornwall, Romano and Shankland, 2008: 32) Origins – Basic Needs approach • 1970-80s - Project-based development • Failure of top-down large scale infrastructural project – ‘trickle down’ theories discredited • Targeting of social aspects – ‘basic needs’ Shifts in the 1980s • ‘Putting the Last First’ (Chambers, 1983) – Critical of failure of mainstream development approaches – Critical of narrowly technical and discipline-specific approaches – Challenging development professionals to ‘unlearn’ their training • Local knowledge (bottom up works best) • Empowerment – Increasingly the approach of NGOs from 70s on… • Financial crisis and rise neo-liberalism made selfsufficiency a necessity – participation as cost-sharing From projects to policies… Participation gained momentum as an approach as it was seen to make projects more effective, efficient and sustainable. 1990 – WB established cross-organisational Participation Learning Group - Report (1994) – ‘low intensity’ participation routine in Bank’s work; ‘high intensity’ (joint decision-making, control by beneficiaries over initiatives) less so - Report noted the need for governments to enhance participation in policy as well as projects And onto field research… • Toolkits developed for ‘market research’ - Stakeholder analysis, social analysis, needs assessments… • PRA – sharing of knowledge, joint analysis, learning and planning • Led to ‘participatory development’ school (McGee’s analogy to GAD – transformative approach – development process to be more equitable, democratic and inclusive) PRAs All occurring within a changing context… 1990s • Refocusing of aid on poverty reduction goals • Governance • Human rights • Partnership and the rise of civil society Shift from project to policy-based development From Beneficiary Project Consultation Appraisal Micro To Citizen Policy Decision-making Implementation Macro Gaventa and Valderrama, 1999 Policy and participation Decentralisation PRSPs ‘Voices of the Poor’ But what exactly does participation mean? Arnstein’s ladder Citizen participation defined as “…the redistribution of power that enables the have-not citizens, presently excluded from the political and economic processes, to be deliberately included in the future…” (1969: 216) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Manipulation : Objective is not to enable people to participate in planning or conducting programmes, but to enable powerholders to "“educate” or “cure” the participants Therapy : idem Informing : Allows the “have-nots” to hear and have a voice Consultation : idem Placation : a higher level tokenism because the ground rules allow havenots to advise, but retain for the power-holders the continued right to decide Partnership : enables citizens to negotiate and engage in trade-offs with traditional powerholders Delegated power : “Have-not” citizens obtain the majority of decisionmaking seats, or full managerial control Citizen control : idem Participation and power (White, 1996) Form of participation What ‘partn’ means to implementing agency What ‘partn’ means for those on receiving end What ‘partn’ is for Nominal Legitimisation – to Inclusion – to show are doing retain some something access to potential benefits Instrumental Efficiency Cost – of time spent Costeffectiveness Representative Sustainability Leverage – in influence project To give people a voice Transformative Empowerment Empowerment – to decide for oneself Both a means and en end Display Dimensions of power Power over – the ability to dominate Power to – The ability to see possibilities for change Power with – Power that comes from individuals working together to achieve common goals Power within – Feelings of self-worth, self-esteem within individuals Willis (2005: 102) after Rowlands (1997, 1998) Theories of power Lukes (1974) Decision-making (contests in visible, open spaces) Non Decision-making (‘mobilisation of bias’ / manipulation of rules of the game) Ideological power (conflicts hidden through internationalisation of dominating discourses, ideologies, values, behaviours….) Participation: the advocates… • • • • Efficiency and effectiveness Sustainability Enhancing democracy Building legitimacy and social cohesion • Need to situate debate in broader arena of governance – concerning questions over development, democracy, citizenship and evolving nature and roles of state and civil society The critics… • On PRAs – simplistic and naïve conception of ‘community’ - Who participates? Who does not? • Depoliticised/technical approach reinforcing existing power inequalities – insufficient understanding of how power operates and how empowerment may occur • Focus on ‘problem solving’ / solutions (‘makeability’ of society) detracts from underlying forces of social and economic change – obsession with local rather than wider structures of injustice and oppression • An inadequate understanding of the role of structure and agency in social change The Actors - NGOs While people inside the NGO world still think of themselves as occupying the high moral ground, the reality is now that few people in the South outside the NGO world think of NGOs like this. The word in the street in the South is that NGOs are charlatans racking up large salaries… and many air-conditioned offices. (Holloway, 1999) The key question… • Has participation (as an alternative development approach) influenced the mainstream development agenda, transforming development thinking and practice OR • Has participation’s absorption into the mainstream development approach undermined its potential and impact ? Gender and development (GAD) Origins Feminism of ’60s on + Boserup’s pioneering work: WID – WAD - GAD Feminism(s) Feminism is not a unified perspective or set of ideas. Three phases of feminist activism and theorising may be identified The first phase 19th and early 20th century equality in legal and political spheres The second phase 1970s built on the distinction between sex and constructed gender Betty Frieden The Feminine Mystique 1965); Kate Millet Sexual Politics (1970); Germain Greer The Female Eunuch (1970) Raising consciousness about a diverse range of issues in relation to identity and gender hierarchy; oppressive patriarchy; women = a social class? Both first and second waves of feminism attempted to establish rigid divisions between male and female, and saw female oppression as being inevitable and biologically determined. Feminism(s) Socialist feminism – combines Marxist conception of power with feminist conception of patriarchy – examines problem of woman as mother and worker; producer and reproducer Radical feminism – takes a ‘political’ stance to the notion of gender as ‘social construction’ – examines the social relations of power – interests of men have come to be seen as universal human interests – differences between women not of such interest as deflects the focus away from the workings of male supremacy Feminism(s) The third phase / postmodern feminism 1980s and 1990s Traditional feminist analysis - middle-class, white, North American/Western European women Emphasis on difference and plurality No universal perspective C. Gilligan In a Different Voice, 1982; B. Hooks Feminist Theory, 1984 Women in Development (WID) Ester Boserup (1970) Empirical studies of work done by women in the global South - Documented the contribution of women to economic development First data produced to render visible women’s work – up to then men alone viewed as actors and agents of development Stressed the need to incorporate women into development policies and practices – equity, anti-poverty and efficiency Paved the way for the WID approach – dev not obtainable if women not integrated into dev process – separate WID projects developed (time!) UN Decade for Women – themes of development, peace and equality Criticisms of WID approach • Emphasis was on economic development rather than on particular barriers and problems faced by women – Increase in women’s participation in market economy seen to lead to both equity and efficiency – WID sometimes resulted in worse conditions for women as their workload was increased – Women just a cheap delivery system for increased economic development – “Add women and stir” approach/programmes • Women treated the same as men – gender-based barriers to their participation not explored • No-one willing to redistribute power to women (equity programmes typically top-down) Women and Development (WAD) (Southern perspective strong - DAWN) - - Women already integrated into development in an exploitative way – women’s real needs not being met Women not neglected, just overburdened and undervalued A re-evaluation of women’s contribution to the development process required, and a redistribution of benefits (S/N; men/women) accordingly Women will never get equality if patriarchal structures and global inequalities not addressed Criticisms - Static conceptualisation of women as a homogenous, undifferentiated group whose condition determined by their sex Women’s triple role in development (Moser, 1989) Production Reproduction Community management Increased emphasis with SAPs ‘80s-’90s – GAD – Empowerment Key differences to previous approaches - Critiqued the development process itself by highlighting how capitalist development (industrialisation and commercialising of agriculture) had had adverse impacts on 3 spheres of work (triple role) of women - Conceptualised gender as a dynamic social construct (Anne Oakley) - An explicit focus on gender power relations (radical feminism) Influenced the shift in development towards empowerment and participation approaches Southern contributions to the GAD approach - Assumptions that ‘women’ were a homogenous category challenged – a reaction to the dominance of monolithic white, middle-class Northern feminism (third wave) DAWN (Development Alternatives for Women for a New Era) AWID (Association for Women’s Rights in Development) - Stereotypes of Southern women as uniformly victimised, poor and uneducated challenged (Mohanty, 1988) Another shift in the GAD approach… • Transformation from ‘needs’ based approach to ‘rights’ based approach (reflecting shifts within broader development theory) • Women now seen as citizens rather than mothers, wives, and carers • Linked to UN commitments (see on further) – recognition of women’s rights as human rights v. important – Violence against women only recognised as human right violation for the first time in 1993 (UN Vienna Conference on Human Rights) • But – some reservations with Western rights-based approach… Implications for research, policy and practice At micro-level: • Inter-household analyses emerge as images of harmonious unitary households dissolve • Programmes / projects put in place to increase women’s access to, and control over money (era of micro-credit schemes) • Era of ‘women’s projects’ – targeting ‘women’s issues’ Implications for research, policy and practice At macro level: Gender mainstreaming – incorporation of gender into mainstream development targets and policies – e.g. UN • • • • • 1975: 1976-85: 1980: 1985: 1995: • • 2005: 2006: 1st UN Conference for Women (Mexico City) UN Decade for Women UN Copenhagen Conference for Women (VAW) UN Nairobi Conference for Women UN Beijing Conference for Women – Beijing Platform for Action – National Plans for Women Beijing+5 UN Reform process to include new gender mainstreaming unit… Gender mainstreaming What exactly is it? “…a long-term strategy or systematic institutional approach for promoting/producing gender equality as a policy outcome” (SIDA definition) All bilateral and multilateral agencies now have policies (many staffed units), NGOs also, Goal no. 2 of MDG. Gender mainstreaming – Does it work? The pluses… • Politically significant: the spirit and politics of its intent – to imbue all systems, structures and institutionalised cultures with awareness of gender-based biases and injustices, and remove them. • Makes gender issues everyone’s concern, not just the ‘gender types’ and units • Practical contributions: measures to ensure mainstreaming of gender perspectives (e.g. BPfA – national plans; gender budgeting…) Gender mainstreaming – Does it work? The negatives… • • • Nebulous and elusive with unclear goals Does not demand enough in terms of skills and resources from those mandated to implement it Not working for / reaching women most marginalised Most importantly (and perhaps damning!) – a neutralisation of political intent - A focus on the difference in outcomes between women and men and not the power relationships and their origins which shape these outcomes “In recent years, less emphasis appears to have been put on effecting the ‘mainstream’ of societal structures, processes, organisational cultures and politics through gender mainstreaming as socially transformative, while more is being put on the ‘mainstream’ of development administration’s policies, planning routes and processes, programmes and projects…” (Woodford-Berger, 2003: 67) Sustainable development A ‘new paradigm’ or a ‘green-wash over business as usual’? Sustainable development is an integrated, systematic approach to development that takes a long-term approach and balances its different dimensions – economic growth, social equity and long-term environmental sustainability. Irish Aid Environmental Policy for Sustainable Development, Irish Aid, n.d. It is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. World Commission on Environment and Development, The Brundtland Commission,1987 Origins • The term ‘sustainable development’ generally attributed to the World Conservation Strategy (1980) (IIED) • ‘Brundtland Report’ – Our Common Future – 1970s – studies predicted depletion of finite reserves (neo-Malthusians) – Others countered with claims that technology would compensate – - 1985 – hole in ozone layer detected over Antarctica • CFCs • Global scale problem • Existing climatic models failed to predict this – how much really understood? • Popularity due to vagueness? • Like apple pie… but what does this mean in practice – commitments, costs? Mainstream approaches • World Conservation Strategy (1980) • Brandt Reports (1980s) • ‘Brundtland Report’ (1987) • Caring for the Earth (1991) Critiques of mainstream approaches • Reformist rather than transformist • Rational management focus (modernisation again!) with nothing to say about the structures of wealth and power that constrain implementation • No analysis of the world economy or causes of poverty • Draw only on neo-populist ideas – e.g. failure of large-scale, centrallyplanned interventions, and celebration of indigenous knowledge and ‘people-centred’ development • Rural focus – little to say about strategies of urbanisation or industrialisation • More readily applicable to SSA than to countries more industrialised or urbanised such as Brazil, Argentina, NICs in Asia… Contrasting approaches The ‘green’ alternative to ‘blue’ (market, liberal, capitalist) and ‘red’ (state-centred, socialist) development - Development as social transformation - A strategy of ‘demodernisation’ involving a gradual withdrawal from the modern capitalist world economy and the launch of a new, nonmodern, non-capitalist development project - The social unit of development to be a culturally defined community – each community to be self-reliant - Development to be characterised by social justice and ecological balance Contrasting approaches Ecosocialism • • An extension of radical development thinking/radical socialism Redefinition of needs, the redistribution of resources and a reassessment of the industrial mode of production required Ecofeminism (Shiva…) - Both women and nature are subjugated and oppressed by patriarchal industrialism and capitalism – shared history of oppression Modern science a masculine and patriarchal project which requires the subjugation of both nature and women – imposed on ‘indigenous’ societies A gender-based ideology of patriarchy underlies ecological destruction The ‘feminist principle in nature’ = women, as producers, closer to nature in spiritual sense – WED ‘earth mother myths’ / ‘feminist fables’?? Climate change ‘the defining human development issue of our generation’ “The effect that increased droughts, extreme weather events, tropical storms and sea level rises will have on large parts of Africa, on many small island states and coastal zones will be inflicted in our lifetimes. In terms of aggregate world GDP, these short term effects may not be large. But for some of the world’s poorest people, the consequences could be apocalyptic. In the long run climate change is a massive threat to human development and in some places it is already undermining the international community’s efforts to reduce extreme poverty.” (UNDP HDR, 2008: 3) Trends over time • Of the 12 warmest years since records began, 11 of them were between 1995 and 2006 • Ice coverage on glaciers and icecaps has been dramatically reduced • Arctic sea ice is shrinking by at least 2.7% per decade • Sea levels are rising • Drought-prone regions are suffering more intense and longer rainless periods • Heavy precipitation is increasing, and weather systems are becoming increasingly variable (IPCC, 2008) Models IPCC data (almost) universally accepted Climate change vulnerability indices (http://www.maplecroft.com/news/climate_change_risk_list_highlights_vulnerable_nation s_and_safe_havens_05.php#) Consequences? Consequences? Consequences? Impact on the poor • Climate shocks (droughts, floods, storms) – 262mn people affected by climate disasters each year from 2000-2004 – 98% in DCs (1 in 19 people) (UNDP, 2008: 16) – Limited insurance, meagre assets, low incomes • UNDP research – positive correlations of malnourishment, stunting and illiteracy over time with drought in Kenya, Ethiopia, Niger and India Policy responses • Caught up in contentious high-level political debates since the 1970s • The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) – Signed 1992, adopted 1994 (after much debate in 80s) • Adoption of Kyoto Protocol in 1997; entered into force in 2005 (disquiet at movement towards protocol as legal instrument) – developed countries to attain a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of at least five percent of combined emissions levels during 1990 in the period between 2008 and 2012. Policy responses • Climate change mitigation responses – IPCC recommends cuts on greenhouse gas emissions in region of 80-60% 1990 levels – Negotiations on emission limits – ‘Kyoto Protocol’ targets – national targets – ‘Kyoto Plus’ – onto Kyoto post-2012 – Transforming how we produce and use energy – But Australia (voluntary system); USA efficiency, not reduction • Carbon pricing – Carbon taxes – ‘Cap and Trade’ (EU’s ETS ~ Emissions Trading System) • Regulation of transport – personal, trade Proposals on the way forward… • UNDP proposal of Climate Change Mitigation Facility (CCMF) – To mobilise $25-50 billion p.a. to finance low carbon energy investments in DCs • In the meantime… adapting to the inevitable – Climate Change Adaptation – now a central strand of national and international climate policy – Activities range from reducing vulnerability to shocks to those improving response capacity. ‘Adaptation apartheid’ (Desmond Tutu) • Small footprints, big impacts BUT • Poor resources to assess climate risks (meteorology) • Few resources for preventative infrastructure ($1 prevention prevents $7 loss) • Poor levels of climate shock related social protection mechanisms • A challenge to mainstream modernisation? • Sustainable growth = what exactly? Discussion forum Group 3: Aid and Governance • Crawford, G. (1997) “Foreign aid and political conditionality: Issues of effectiveness and consistency”, Democratization, 4(3), pp. 69-108. • Mercer, C. (2002) “NGOs, civil society and democratisation in the developing world: A critical review of the literature”, Progress in Development Studies, 2(1), pp. 5-22. • Easterly, W. (2007) “Was Development Assistance a Mistake?”, American Economic Review, 97(2), pp. 328-332.