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Terrestrial Biodiversity Research Paper
By Klara Huebsch
25584153
GEOG 211 State of the Earth
Klara Huebsch
25584153
GEOG 211
Terrestrial Biodiversity Research Paper
Introduction of Terrestrial Biodiversity/Why it is Important
Terrestrial biodiversity is the variability of living organisms on land, including diversity within
species, between species, and of ecosystems. Biodiversity is a major component of ecosystem
health, as it is the basis for almost all ecosystem functions. This is because each individual species
has a specific role in the ecosystem. Species depend on each other for survival as their life
processes are interconnected. High levels of biodiversity increases the resiliency of an ecosystem.
In the case of a natural disaster, such as a fire, there is an increased chance of survival when there
is higher species diversity. The variability between species means that some will have
characteristics that will give certain species survival advantages during hazardous events.
Humans benefit from the biodiversity of plants, animals, fungi, and bacteria as they provide us
with raw materials we use in everyday life. For example, prescription drugs commonly contain
compounds found in nature. Penicillin is a great example, which is derived from fungi.
Biodiversity supports the functions of ecosystem services that purify water, generate fertile soil,
help control pests, break down wastes, and moderate weather extremes (William Harris, n.d.).
Currently living species only account for 2-3% of the species to have ever lived on earth (Fitria
Rinawait et al., 2013). Earth has witnessed five major extinctions of the Phanerozoic era (Fitria
Rinawait et al., 2013). It is believed that we are currently living through the sixth, as humans’
detrimental affect on the environment decreases species’ ability to live on earth. From human
caused pressures on ecosystems, it is estimated that current species loss is 1,000-10,000 times the
natural extinction rate (“How many species are we losing,” n.d.). According to a recent report by
the Zoological Society of London, in concert with the World Wildlife Foundation, in the past 40
years, 52% of all the world’s wildlife has disappeared (Susanne Stoll-Kleemann et al., 2015).
Agriculture, urban development, and food energy production are identified as major threats.
(Susanne Stoll-Kleemann et al., 2015)
History of Terrestrial Biodiversity – Emergence of Issue
As outlined above, species extinctions are not something unheard of. Historically, humans have
exploited the land for their own benefits, taking a toll on local biodiversity levels. In the last ten
thousand years, species extinctions closely related to human activity has been seen particularly
often on islands (Fitria Rinawait et al., 2013). For example, in Madagascar, seven of the seventeen
primates have gone extinct, and it is likely this is due to human activity (Fitria Rinawait et al.,
2013). Flightless birds, such as the elephant bird, were also exploited and went extinct (Fitria
Rinawait et al., 2013).
As humans further created developments to manipulate and exploit the earth’s landscapes for our
own needs, biodiversity levels declined at an accelerated rate. Through the advent of agriculture,
the structure of human society changed in a way that would further exploit raw materials from the
environment. Biodiversity levels were affected by the creation of monocrops as single species
dominated given areas. Agriculture also meant that society could stay in one place, leading to the
development of specializations. These specializations allowed for development in new economies
that demanded raw materials for local consumers. This new form of economy demanded more
from local ecosystems creating larger negative affects on species’ existence.
After the industrial revolution, the development of technology expanded consumerist culture and
global markets. This exacerbated the demand of raw materials and the environment underwent
exploitation levels never seen before. Transportation technologies allowed for goods to be shipped
all over the world, and complex manufacturing technology allowed raw materials to be turned into
the products we now use everyday. Biodiversity levels are significantly impacted by the
consequences of the global economy. This includes large scale habitat loss and degradation,
climate change, unsustainable use of resources, pollution, and invasive species.
Environmental Factors Affecting Global Biodiversity Levels
The IUCN Red List created the following table to outlines the major threats to biodiversity.
Source:http://www.unep.org/geo/GEO5_ebook/Chapter5EN/files/assets/basichtml/index.html#139
Habitat Loss and Degradation
Deforestation and land degradation for resource extraction, agriculture, and infrastructure
development places high amounts of pressure on biodiversity. Globally the constant high demand
for raw materials creates exploitation levels that inevitably affect local ecosystems (Rob Alkemade
et al. 2009). This is a major threat as the habitats of species are being virtually destroyed. From
2000 to 2005, 100 million hectares of forest were lost and more than 30% of the land on earth has
been converted for agricultural use (John Agard et al., n.d.). The demand for biofuels in in places
such as South-East Asia has caused the conversion of naturally abundant forests into monocrops
that do not allow for species diversity to flourish (John Agard et al., n.d.).
Climate Change
Life cycles of all species directly connect to the specific climate conditions. Some species can
more easily adapt to changes in climate compared to others. For example, a mammal may be able
to tolerate warmer conditions. But, their dependence on other organisms in the ecosystem increases
complexity. The plants they eat may only grow in very specific climates, therefore affecting their
ability to live in a given area. The negative affects of climate change will cause the less mobile
species to be become extinct first (Jay R. Malcolm et al., 2000). Natural vegetation will have
increased frequency of weedy and pioneer species as they have ecological competitive advantages
(Jay R. Malcolm et al., 2000). It is also important to recognize that the biomes of the world will be
affected differently from climate change (Jay R. Malcolm et al., 2000). Species living in artic
regions will bear harsher impacts from climate change (Jay R. Malcolm et al., 2000). Their niches
are dependant long ice covered periods, but as the atmosphere continually increases in temperature,
these vital periods are consistently decreasing in duration. Coastal species are at the risk of sea
level rise from increased freshwater drainage into the oceans, and the expansion of water through
increased temperatures. They also are at the risk of increased number of cyclones and storm surges.
As scientists look to understand how climate change is affecting biodiversity, they must address
the uncertainties of the speed and to what extent is climate change affects different species.
Pollution
Pollution coming from toxic wastes, fertilizers and pesticides from agricultures, industry practices
such as oil and mining extraction, sewage plants, run off from urban/suburban areas, and oil spills
affect biodiversity levels. Species are affected through increased morality, impacted reproductive
abilities, and habitat destruction.
Measuring Biodiversity
Mean Species Abundance (MSA) is an indicator used to measure naturalness and biodiversity
intactness (“What is GLOBIO?” n.d.). It is calculated by obtaining the mean abundance of original
species relative to their abundance in undisturbed systems (“What is GLOBIO?” n.d.). A value of
100% (or 1.0) would indicate that the biodiversity levels are the same to in their natural setting. A
MSA value of 0% would indicate total ecosystem destruction, with no species remaining.
The Convention of Biological Diversity uses a variety of indicators to inform decision-making
processes (“CBD Indicators,” n.d.), such as:
-Trends in biomes, ecosystems, and habitats.
-Trends in the distribution and abundance of selected species.
-Coverage of protected areas.
-Change in the status of threatened species.
-Trends in the genetic variety of cultivated plants, domesticated animals, fish species of economic
importance.
-The fragmentation and connectivity of ecosystems.
-Nitrogen levels.
-Trends of invasive species.
The following map, created by the GOE5, outlines concentration of species under threat across the
globe.
Source:http://www.unep.org/geo/GEO5_ebook/Chapter5EN/files/assets/basichtml/index.html#142
Future Trends – Affects on Society
If humans do not drastically reshape our global society to include effective mechanisms for
protecting global biodiversity, the factors negatively affecting biodiversity will significantly
impact humans too. High levels of biodiversity are necessary for ecosystems to function properly,
providing essential ecosystem services that humans benefit from. This includes water purification,
pollination, flood regulation, carbon sequestration, fertile soil production, pest control, and the
process of breaking down wastes. Without biodiversity, humans would lose these services which
are essential to our lives. Food supplies will be more vulnerable and fresh water availability will
become increasingly irregular. The loss of species will especially impact the livelihoods of
indigenous groups as they would lose culturally significant species used for medicine and artwork.
Economies supported by nature-based tourism will bear negative impacts from decreased
biodiversity levels. It also must be pointed out that commonly those in poorer regions of the world
feel the impact of environmental degradation stronger as they tend to me more dependant on local
ecosystems (John Agard et al., n.d.).
The following map uses the MSA method to measure the expected severity of future impacts on
global biodiversity. It is estimated that a there will be a decrease from an MSA of 0.70 in 2000 to
0.63 by 2050 (Rob Alkemade et al. 2009). To put this in context, a MSA value of 0.01 is equivalent
to 1.3 million kilometres squared of land (the size of Peru of Chad) converted to an area with no
original species intactness (Rob Alkemade et al. 2009). The map indicates that by the 2050, there
will be increasingly numbers of species living in an unnatural states – shown by the warm tones.
Source: http://www.globio.info/what-can-globio-be-used-for/global-to-national-scale
Responses
The uncontrolled exploitation of the environment for human consumption calls for effective policy
and institutional response. This includes engagement of local communities. Globally, current
responses are not substantial enough to reduce current decline rates of biodiversity. In some areas,
there has been improvement. Currently, 13% of the world’s terrestrial land is now protected areas
(John Agard et al., n.d.). Policies and calls for action are increasingly including the needs of
indigenous groups, recognizing their community-managed areas. There now are more policies and
initiatives to manage invasive alien species and GMOs, as 55% of countries now have legislation
to deal with this issue (John Agard et al., n.d.). There have been isolated cases of species recovery
too, such as the bald eagle population in the pacific north west. Habitat restoration projects are
also on the rise.
Many international initiatives have been created to address the issue of biodiversity loss. Since the
United Nations Summit on Environment and Development (the Rio “Earth Summit”) in 1992which focused on climate change, biodiversity loss, desertification-international financing for
biodiversity conservation has estimated to have grown by approximately 38% in real terms, and
now stands at $3.1 billion per year (John Agard et al., n.d.).
The Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) is a multilateral treaty. It was open to signature at
the Rio Convention and 168 countries signed. It indicates a growing commitment to promote
sustainable development in the global community. Member states are required to develop a
national biodiversity strategy and action plan as a mechanism to implement their strategic plants.
Its three goals are to conserve biodiversity, to use components sustainably, and to ensure the
equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources (“History of the Convention,” n.d.).
The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity, which includes the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, was created
for the 2011-2020 period. These targets are especially prevalent as we are living through this time
period.
The goals of the Aichi Targets include (John Agard et al., n.d.):
-Mainstreaming biodiversity loss issues across government and society.
-Reduce the strongest pressures biodiversity and promote sustainable use.
-Improve the status of biodiversity by protecting ecosystems, species, and genetic diversity.
-Enhance the benefits from biodiversity and ecosystem services for all.
-Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity
building.
-Accept the Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing.
These goals are very important as they underpin the UN Millennium Development Goals. Some
of these goals include eradicating poverty, achieving universal health care, promoting gender
equality, and reducing child mortality. Biodiversity underpins these goals as it supports food
security and human health, contributes to economic development, and provides clean water and
air.
Other internationally agreed upon goals include the International Plant Protection Convention,
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, and the
Convention on the Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
The International Union on the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List has been created to assess
the conservation status of species, subspecies, varieties, and subpopulations all around the world
(“IUCN Red List: About,” n.d.). The goal of this program is to provide information and analyses
of the status, trend, and threats to species to encourage action for the conservation of biodiversity
(“IUCN Red List: About,” n.d.). It is used to highlight species that are under critical risk of
extinction. Species are evaluated using the IUNC Red List Categories and Criteria. Species are
categorized as either Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Extinct,
Extinct in the Wild, or Data Deficient. The scientific data they compile is used to inform decisionmaking processes for global conservation policy initiatives.
The following table outlines the number of species in each of the Red List categories.
Source: iuncredlist.com
To drastically improve current trends of biodiversity loss, extreme measures must be taken to
combat exploitative pressures. This poses as an extreme challenge as humanity currently depends
on a global economic system that requires exploitative processes. Addressing this problem could
require systemic change to the current structure of our global society.
Overview of Biodiversity within the DPSIR Framework
When using the DPSIR Framework, it is necessary to address the complexity inherent in
biodiversity challenges as it is interconnected with almost all negative impacts on the environment.
Drivers:
-Consumerist culture.
-Economic growth dependent on natural resources/exploitation of raw materials (ie. forestry,
mining).
-Agriculture.
-Use of fossil fuels.
-Overpopulation.
-Urban sprawl.
Pressures:
-Decreased habitat.
-Climate change.
-Pollution.
-Invasive species.
State:
-Decreased quality of soil.
-Decreased levels of biodiversity.
Impacts:
-Decreased ecosystem health (ie. decreased resiliency).
-Decreased human health.
-Decreased benefits from ecosystem services.
Responses:
-International Initiatives (ie. CBD, IUCN Red List).
-Habitat restoration projects.
-Species Recovery projects.
Bibliography:
Agard, J., Butchart, S., H., M., Carino, J., Cheung, W., W., L., Collen, B., Firbank, L., G., Hales,
S., Hockings, M., Hoft, R., Kitzes, J., McGeoch, M., A., Prip, C., Oldfield, T., E., E., Redford,
K., H., Toivonen, H., UNEP Biodiversity: Chapter 5. Retrieved from:
http://www.unep.org/geo/GEO5_ebook/Chapter5EN/files/assets/basic-html/index.html - 133
Citation in text: (John Agard et al., n.d.)
Alkemade, R., Oorschot, M., Miles, L., Nellemann, C., Bakkenes, M., Brink, B. (2009).
GLOBIO3: A Framework to Investigate Options for Reducing Global Terrestrial Biodiveristy
Loss. 12: 374-390 CrACVtTCàiCl DOI: 10.100.
Citation in text: (Rob Alkemade et al. 2009)
Author unknown. (n.d.). CBD Indicators. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int/2010target/framework/indicators.shtml.
Citation in text: (“CBD Indicators,” n.d.)
Author Unknown. (n.d.). History of the Convention. Retrieved from https://www.cbd.int/history/
Citation in text: (“History of the Convention,” n.d.)
Author Unknown. (n.d.). How many species are we losing? Retrieved from
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/biodiversity/biodiversity/
Citation in text: (“How many species are we losing?” n.d.)
Author Unknown. (n.d.). IUCN Red List: About. Retrieved from
http://support.iucnredlist.org/about
Citation in text: (“IUCN Red List: About,” n.d.)
Author Unknown. (n.d.). What is GLOBIO? How it works. Retrieved from:
http://www.globio.info/what-is-globio/how-it-works/impact-on-biodiversity).
Citation in text: (“What is GLOBIO?” n.d.)
Harris, W. (n.d.) Why is biodiversity important? Retrieved from:
http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/conservation/issues/biodiversityimportant.htm)
Citation in text: (William Harris, n.d.)
Malcolm, J., R., Markham, A. (2000). Global Warming and Terrestrial Biodiversity Decline: A
Modelling Approach. (A Report Prepared for World Wildlife Fund July 2000). Retrieved from:
http://www.wwf.se/source.php/1117008/figures.pdf).
Citation in text: (Jay R. Malcolm et al., 2000)
Rinawati, F., Stein, K., Linder, A. (2013). Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity-The Setting
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Citation in text: (Fitria Rinawait et al., 2013).
Stoll-Kleemann, S., O’Riordan, T., (2015) The Sustainability Challenges of our Meat and Dairy
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Citation in text: (Susanne Stoll-Kleemann et al., 2015)