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Ch. 9 Deviance and Crime DEFINING DEVIANCE "Deviance is not a quality of the act... The deviant is one to whom that label has successfully been applied; deviant behavior is behavior people so label". - Howard Becker, "The Outsiders", 1963 Defining Deviance • many attempts to establish a definition of deviance. • many have failed or have been seriously flawed. • inability to accommodate various cultural standards and political beliefs into a universal definition. Main Types of Definitions Deviance as objective reality (normative or absolutist perspective) ◦ Used in positivist theories Deviance as subjective experience (relativistic perspective) ◦ Social constructionist theories Textbook definitions… Deviance: The recognized violation of cultural norms Crime: The violation of a society’s formally enacted criminal law Social control: Attempts by society to regulate people’s thought and behaviour Criminal justice system: a formal response by police, courts, and prison officials to alleged violations of the law The Overlap Between Crime and Deviance Biological and Personality Factors In past, deviant and criminal behaviour thought to be the result of biological factors: ◦ Early studies tried to link head shape (Lombroso) and body size (Sheldon) to criminality But studies show people’s overall genetic composition in combination with social influences account for only some crime Personality factors: having the ability to cope with frustration and identifying positively with cultural norms and values are related to fewer problems with police – “good boys” vs “bad boys” ◦ “Containment Theory” (Reckless and Dinitz) Phrenology Map Sheldon’s Somatypes (1949) Personality Types (Eysenck, 1958) Other Explanations The XYY male: Chromosomal abnormalities. Genetic Loading: Heredity(Genetic Loading) + Biological Process + Environmental Stress = Deviance Sociological Definitions of Deviance Stresses social context, not individual behavior. Recognizes that not all behaviors are judged similarly by all groups. Recognizes that established rules and norms are socially created. Emile Durkheim on Deviance Functions of deviance: 1. Deviance affirms cultural values and norms 2. Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries 3. Responding to deviance brings people together 4. Deviance encourages social change Sociological Theories of Deviance Deviance creates social cohesion. Structural Results from structural strains in Functionalism society and when attachment to social bonds is diminished. Symbolic Interaction Conflict Theory Deviance is learned behavior. Results from social labeling when the powerful assign deviant labels. Dominant classes control the definition of deviance. Results from inequality in society Elite deviance goes largely unpunished. Structural Functionalism: Merton’s Strain Theory Traces the origins of deviance to the tensions caused by the gap between cultural goals and the means people have to achieve these goals. Culture establishes goals for people; social structures provide, or fail to provide, the means for people to achieve those goals. Imbalance between cultural goals and structurally available means can compel individuals into deviant behavior. Merton’s Strain Theory Type Conformity Cultural Goals Accept Conventional Means Accept Innovation Accept Reject Ritualism Reject Accept Retreatism Reject Reject Rebellion Replace Replace Social Control Theory: Hirschi Travis Hirschi developed social control theory to explain the occurrence of deviance. According to social control theory, deviance occurs when a person’s (or group’s) attachment to social bonds is weakened. Most of the time people internalize social norms because of their attachments to others. When that bond is broken, deviance occurs. Symbolic Interaction Theories of Deviance Differential Association Deviant behavior is learned through interaction with others. People pass on deviant expectations through their social groups and networks. Symbolic Interaction Theories of Deviance Labelling Theory Responses of others is most significant in deviance. A person may become deviant because of a label, even if he/she did not engage in deviant behavior. Social Stigma (Erving Goffman) A stigma is an attribute that is socially devalued and discredited. People with stigmas are defined in terms of their presumed deviance. In hiding their stigma, they isolate themselves from communities where they can find support. What is Stigma? Erving Goffman defined stigma as, “an undesired differentness from what we had anticipated’ (Goffman, 1963:5) Three classes of stigma ◦ abominations of the body (e.g., physically disabled) ◦ blemishes of individual character preceived as weak (e.g., alcoholism, mental illness, unemployment, homosexuality). ◦ tribal stigma (e.g., race, gender, religion, or nationality) Historical Context a stigma was a sign, cut or burned into the body, indicating status of a discredited individual (e.g. slave, traitor, criminal) The word stigma originates from the Greeks, who used the term to refer to a branded mark on the skin that signifies something undesirable about the bearer of the mark (Goffman, 1963). Modern: 7 stigma clusters physical disability, mental disability, economically disadvantaged, social deviants, physical appearance, sexual identity, racial identity. Goffman said… Within our society, we ‘normals’ hold notions of what it means to be ‘normal.’ By normal, in this context, we mean conforming to the present standard of behaviour or appearance within our society (Goffman, 1963). When individuals deviate from those expectations of what it means to be normal in terms of physical attributes, personality traits, and so forth, these individuals often are stigmatized. Stigma and Prejudice Blacks, Aboriginals, the obese, people with disabilities, the mentally ill, the homeless, the physically unattractive, and car-crash victims are all examples of stigmatized groups. Stigma occurs when an individual is identified as deviant, linked with negative stereotypes that engender prejudiced attitudes, which are acted upon in discriminatory behaviour Deviance Theories and Stigma Societal Reaction Theory: ◦ Primary deviance –individual outside the norm who requires social control ◦ Secondary deviance –individual changes his/her behaviour and self-definition to adapt to society’s stigmatizing reaction to his/her deviance; person then begins to behave in “expected deviant" fashion The Stigmatization Process 1. 2. 3. An attribute is deemed salient by society, such that individuals with this characteristic are grouped together and labelled. Labelled characteristics are linked with negative stereotypes, making it easy to see labelled individuals as fundamentally different from the rest of society. Differentiation of “us" and “them" occur; Stigmatized individuals are seen to “be” and are referred to by their label (e.g. “a manicdepressive” or “a schizophrenic”). 4. 5. Individuals experience status loss and discrimination as a result of their label. Discrimination occurs on both a personal and structural level. The stigma process is entirely dependent on the social, economic, and political power necessary to impose discriminatory experiences on the labelled individual or group. Theories of Deviance applied to Mental Illness Structural Functionalism By recognizing mental illness, society upholds values about conforming behavior. Symbolic Interactionism Mentally ill are victims of societal reactions to their behavior. Labelling and Conflict theory People with few resources are most likely to be labeled mentally ill. Which explanation fits mental illness best? To think about…. Thomas Szasz, American psychiatrist (the Myth of Mental Illness) said “mental illness is a myth, whose function it is to disguise and thus render more palatable the bitter pill of moral conflicts in human relations.” He calls it “problems in living” “mental illnesses are counterfeit diseases” from https://www.cchrint.org/about-us/co-founder-dr-thomasszasz/quotes-on-his-book-the-myth-of-mental-illness/ Moral Entrepreneurs Moral entrepreneurs use their own views of right and wrong to establish rules and label others as deviant, and then these rules are enforced on persons with less power. Moral entrepreneurs often create moral panics and moral crusades to help create public and political support for their cause . Reefer Madness (1936) Trailer Reefer Madness Full Video Deviance and Crime Deviance differs from crime because ◦ (a) crime always involves violating a law but deviance does not ◦ (b) crime is the violation of a formal norm, while deviance is a violation of a informal norm that derives from a popular belief ◦ (c) the number and varieties of deviance are infinitely greater than those of crime ◦ (d) some crimes are not deviant due to their acceptance throughout society Crime, Laws, and Social Order Crimes occur as the result of the intentional violation of criminal laws Laws are formal rules that help create social order by showing which behaviours are acceptable and by producing predictable behaviour in the community Crime and Society A violation of a law is an expression of group conflict and interest ◦ Design of laws in influenced by a class bias ◦ What a crime is depends on current law What is criminal at one time in history or society may not be considered criminal in a different time or place Violence An act of force perceived by the powerful as threatening to the status quo Crime can be violent or non-violent Crime in Canada Crime in Canada is measured through official statistics, which are based on police records of crime Other methods of measuring crime include self-reporting measures and victimization surveys Official Crime Statistics Overall, crime in Canada has decreased ◦ 47% were property crimes But, problems with official crime statistics ◦ Focus on traditional crimes ◦ Omit white-collar crimes, organized crimes, and political crime ◦ Underreport extent of crime ◦ Data collection inaccuracies Crime Statistics (cont.) Official statistics: from Uniform Crime Report: reported crime substantiated by police investigation ◦ Table below shows 12% decline in (Criminal code) crime from 1994-2004 (source: Kendall et al. 2008) Victimization reports: from the General Social Survey: indicates more crimes are committed than reported, e.g., 88% of sexual assaults and 64% of all incidents are not reported (2004) Crime Rates, Canada 1962-2013 (http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-630-x/11-630-x2015001-eng.htm) Homicide Rates, Canada, 1962-2013 Violent vs. Non-violent Crime Violent crime: 11% of all crime Includes homicide and assault (all types) Stalking a relatively new crime in Canada Non-violent crime includes: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Property crimes like theft, B&E and vandalism Drug-related crimes Vice crimes like illegal gambling, prostitution White collar and corporate crime Key Crime Demographics 85-90% of all crimes committed by males But gender gap closing amongst younger groups Differential socialization a factor Younger groups more likely to commit crimes Aging population: crime rate down Females and elderly more often victims Crime Rates and Socioeconomic Trends in Canada Crime rates are linked to socioeconomic trends in larger society Stats Canada studies looking at homicide, robbery, break and enter and motor vehicle theft rates show that unemployment, alcohol consumption/capita, changes in age structure and inflation rate significantly associated with crime rates. Unemployment 1976-2012 Inflation, Unemployment and Alcohol Consumption Increases in unemployment and in the alcohol consumption rate/capita are significantly associated with an increase in homicide rates Inflation (rather than unemployment) associated with higher rates of financially motivated crimes such as robbery, break and enter, motor vehicle theft Social problems lead to higher crime rates Criminal Victimization Patterns vary according to daily routines Routine activities theory (Felson and Cohen, 1980) predicts that victimization requires the convergence in space and time of likely offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians Suitable targets are people who are routinely exposed to criminal activity or who for other reasons have heightened vulnerability Hot spots are locations such as prisons and public places that put suitable targets at greater risk. Types of Crime Violent crime: actions involving force or threat of force against others: ◦ Homicide: unlawful, intentional killing Mass: 4+ people Serial murder: 3+ people > I month ◦ Sexual Assault: 3 levels from touching to aggravated assault, including date rape ◦ Gang violence Types of Crime (cont.) Property crime: the taking of money or property from another without force or threat of force: ◦ Breaking and entering is serious because of possible confrontation ◦ Theft $5000 & under is the most reported ◦ Auto theft statistics are accurate ◦ Shoplifting accounts for $billion losses Types of Crime (cont.) Occupational (white-collar) crime: crime committed by people in the course of their employment or business activity, e.g., fraud, insider trading, and kickbacks Corporate crime: illegal acts committed by corporate employees on behalf of the corporation and with its support, e.g., selling defective products, pollution, and obstructing justice Organized crime Organized Crime in Canada Eg. the Chinese Triad, the Colombian Mafia, the Russian Mafia, and some motorcycle gangs This type of crime prospers especially in Capitalist societies Organized crime relies on secrecy and patronage, and operates at the intersection of legitimate and illegitimate business, family, and formal organization Youth Crime Youth crime: violation of law or commission of status offences by a person 12-17 years of age ◦ 10% of population, but 20% of all charges ◦ Governed by the Youth Criminal Justice Act ◦ Youth crime is down YCJA Effects 2003 - 2010 Is Youth Violence a Problem? “any intentional physical, sexual or psychological assault on another person (or persons) by one or more young people aged 12 to 19 years” Official statistics show youth crime rate down, but much violent activity is not reported Public Health Agency, Canada categorizes youth violence into three forms: emotional, physical, and sexual abuse and notes that emotional most common. Also, some violence turned inward (i.e. suicide) Youth Violence and Risk Factors Socio-demographic factors: poor, male, ethnic youth at higher risk Family factors: youth who experience abuse in the home, receive harsh parenting, and are exposed to criminal activity at home School factors: poor academic performance affects self-esteem Cultural Factors: patriarchal values, and peer group values can influence youth Deviance and Crime in a Global Perspective: Terrorism Motivated by political conflicts, often involving ethnic and religious conflict, terrorism has caused some of the world’s most violent incidents. These expressions of extremist political beliefs stem from the many international conflicts of our current world events. Sociologists look to the social structural conflicts from which terrorism emerges as the cause of such criminal and deviant behavior. Deviance and Crime in a Global Perspective: Technology Technological developments that ease communication for legitimate business activities also enable illegitimate activities to thrive. Money acquired through illegal activity in one country can easily be transferred to another country. Transportation systems critical to the international exchange of illegal goods—drugs, weapons, or sexual services— link places that were once distant and inaccessible. Deviance and Crime in a Global Perspective: Drugs Some nations, including the United States, Canada, Australia, and parts of western Europe, are vast markets for the consumption of illegal drugs. Other nations, such as Colombia, are known as major drug producers. Still others, such as China, Brazil, and Mexico, play a role as conduits for drug traffic and production. The Global “Fix” The Criminal Justice System Network of organizations including the police, courts and corrections, involved in law enforcement and administration of justice Police have discretion (use of personal judgement), which leads to different stop and arrest rates for different groups ◦ Toronto Black officers have noted differential enforcements ◦ Racial profiling is also a social problem ◦ Community policing: integrating officers into community problem solving Criminal Justice System (cont.) Courts have discretion, but are overloaded ◦ plea-bargaining: sentence reduction for a guilty plea. It can be oppressive or inadequate sentencing. Punishment and prisons have four functions: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Retribution Social protection Rehabilitation Deterrence Indigenous people are overrepresented in prisons Criminal Justice System (cont.) A recent decline in incarceration has occurred ◦ decline in crime rates ◦ use of conditional sentences Restorative justice focuses on repairing the harm caused by crime by holding moderated meetings of victims, offenders, and others affected by crimes ◦ Sentencing circles for Indigenous peoples since they are integral to many cultures ◦ But accused must accept responsibility for crime Criminal Justice System (cont.) The death penalty was abolished in Canada in 1976, and extradition of a criminal depends on guarantee that death sentence will not be used Solution is not in more prisons: ◦ Few who commit crimes end up in prison ◦ Little deterrence for white-collar crime ◦ High rates of recidivism show rehabilitation is lacking Crime Severity Index CTV News has put together a series of infographics showing crime severity across Canada in 2012 Statistics are weighted by the seriousness of the reported crime. Go to CBC News at http://www.ctvnews.ca/maps/crimestatistics