Download The Sumerians` Sixth Wheel: “Two Wheels With an Axle, Attached

With the start of the Sumerian civilization, daily life in Mesopotamia began to change. Prior to the growth of
cities and large towns, people lived in small villages and most people hunted and gathered. There wasn't a lot of
variety in jobs or daily life.
Assyrian Musicians
With the growth of large cities, things changed. There were all sorts of jobs and activities. While many people
still worked as farmers in the country, in the city a person could grow up to work in a number of different jobs
such as priest, scribe, merchant, craftsman, soldier, civil servant, or laborer.
Different Classes of People
With people moving to towns and governments being formed, society was dividing into different classes of
people for perhaps the first time. At the top of society was the king and his family. The priests were considered
near the top as well. The rest of the upper class was made up of the wealthy such as high level administrators
and scribes.
Below the upper class was a small middle class made up of craftsman, merchants, and civil servants. They
could make a decent living and could work hard to try and move up in class.
The lower class was made up of laborers and farmers. These people lived a harder life, but could still work their
way up with hard work.
At the bottom were the slaves. Slaves were owned by the king or bought and sold among the upper class. Slaves
were usually people who were captured in battle.
Workers and merchants traveling
What type of homes did they live in?
Most people lived in mud brick homes. They were rectangular in shape and had two to three levels. The roofs
were flat and people would often sleep on the roofs during the hot summers. The mud brick worked as a good
insulator and helped to keep the homes a bit cooler in the summer and warmer in the winter.
Entertainment
As the cities of Mesopotamia grew wealthy, there were more resources and free time for people to enjoy
entertainment. They enjoyed music at festivals including drums, lyres, flutes, and harps. They also enjoyed
sports such as boxing and wrestling as well as board games and games of chance using dice. The children of the
time would have had toys to play with such as tops and jump ropes.
Art and poetry was a big part of the wealthier cities. Most of the poetry and art had a religious theme or honored
the king of the city. Storytellers would have passed stories down over generations with some of the more
popular stories eventually being written down on clay tablets by scribes.
Clothing
Clothing was typically made from sheepskin or wool. The men wore kilt-like skirts and the women wore longer
dresses. They enjoyed wearing jewelry, especially rings. The women braided their long hair, while the men had
long hair and beards. Both men and women wore makeup.
HAMMURABI’S CODE
The first great king of Babylon was King Hammurabi. He conquered all of Mesopotamia and established the
first Babylonian Empire. Hammurabi also established a set of laws that is today called the Code of Hammurabi.
How do we know about the Code of Hammurabi?
The Code of Hammurabi was written down on clay tablets and etched into stone. It is one of the oldest recorded
codes of laws in the world. One of the best surviving examples of the code is written on the "diorite stele".
The top of the diorite stele
Diorite Stele
The diorite stele is a large stone shaped like a giant finger. It is about seven feet tall and two feet wide. It
contains around 4000 lines of text describing 282 different laws. At the top, or "fingertip", of the stele is a
carved picture of King Hammurabi being given the laws from the Babylonian sun god Shamash.
The Code of Law
The actual code of law was divided up into groupings. Many of the laws that had to do with one subject (i.e.
slavery) were grouped together. This would have helped people to find and read just the laws that pertained to
them. Here are some of the major sections of the code:
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Prologue
Legal Procedures
Household laws
Slavery
Trade and business
Religion
Epilogue
The prologue introduced the Code. The prologue describes how the god Shamash gave the laws to Hammurabi.
Here is an excerpt from the prologue:
"bring about the rule of righteousness in the land, to destroy the wicked and the evil-doers; so that the strong
should not harm the weak, so that I should rule …. and enlighten the land, to further the well-being of
mankind".
In the epilogue Hammurabi restates his desire for justice for all saying "Let the oppressed man come and stand
before my image as king of righteousness. Let him understand my words and his case, so he will understand
what is just and his heart will be glad."
Examples of the Laws
Many of the laws describe exactly what a worker should earn. For example, one law states that a sailor should
be paid six gur of grain per year.
Some laws were very harsh and the penalties severe:
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If a son should strike his father, his hands shall be cut off.
If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out.
If any man should strike a man of higher rank, he shall receive sixty blows with an ox-whip.
If a builder builds a house for someone and that house collapses killing them, then the builder shall be
put to death.
What makes the code important?
The code itself tells archeologists a lot about the lives of the people of Babylon. It also contains some important
ideas like having people provide evidence of a crime, innocent until proven guilty, and protection for the weak.
Interesting Facts about the Code of Hammurabi
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Shamash, who is featured at the top of the diorite stele, was the Babylonian god of law, justice, and
salvation.
The diorite stele is called "diorite" because it is made from a type of black rock called diorite.
The diorite stele was originally found by archeologists in the ancient city of Susa. Today it can be found
in the Louvre Museum in Paris, France.
The Code of Hammurabi is one of the oldest and longest deciphered writings in existence.
The code was written using cuneiform script and the Akkadian language.
THE ASSYRIAN ARMY
The Assyrian Empire was built on the strength of their powerful army. The warrior society of the Assyrians
produced fearsome soldiers as well as innovative generals. They used chariots, iron weapons, and siege
equipment to dominate their enemies.
A Standing Army
The early Assyrians were a warrior society. Every young man was expected to train as a warrior and be ready to
fight. As the Assyrian Empire grew, they built a standing army.
A standing army is one made up of professional soldiers whose only job is to fight. The Assyrian soldiers were
trained in siege warfare, battle tactics, and hand-to-hand combat. Every spring the Assyrian army would launch
a battle campaign. They would conquer rich cities, expanding the Assyrian Empire and bringing back wealth to
the king. It is estimated that the size of the Assyrian army at its peak was several hundred thousand soldiers.
Building an Empire
The kings of the Assyrians used this fearsome army to build and expand their empire. The fear of the army was
used to keep the newly conquered people in line. They built forts and roads throughout the empire to help the
army to travel quickly to troubled spots. Any rebellion was quickly crushed.
Eventually, the Assyrian Empire became too big to manage in this way. The cruelty of the Assyrian soldiers
caused rebellion throughout the empire spreading the army thin. When the Babylonians united with the Medes
in 612 BC, they overthrew the Assyrians and brought an end to their reign.
Warrior Kings
The kings of the Assyrians were expected to be warriors themselves. They led the Assyrian army into battle and
fought fiercely. Of course, they were surrounded by an elite force of troops whose job was to keep the king
alive. Even so, some kings did die in combat, such as Sargon II.
Chariots
One of the greatest strengths of the Assyrian army was its chariots. A chariot is a wheeled vehicle pulled by two
to four horses. Riders would stand on the chariot. Typically there were two riders; a driver and a soldier armed
with a spear and a bow and arrow. Sometimes a third man was added to protect the rear.
Chariots were used to smash into enemy lines to create a gap for the rest of the army. They were also used for
leaders and generals who could move about the battlefield quickly issuing orders.
Assyrian cavalry
Weapons
The Assyrians used a wide variety of weapons including swords, spears, bows and arrows, slings, and daggers.
The Assyrians were the first to use iron to make their weapons. Iron was stronger than the bronze used by their
enemies and gave them a distinct advantage.
Armor
The main armor used by Assyrian soldiers was a shield and helmet. Archers had a shield bearer who would
cover them while they got off shots. Full body armor was generally reserved for the officers and generals.
Siege Equipment
The Assyrians invented some of the first siege equipment to defeat fortified cities. They used battering rams to
break down gates and siege towers to go over walls. This was the first time that such complicated siege
equipment was used in battle.
Interesting Facts about the Assyrian Army
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The Assyrians were experts in the area of logistics. They built food stores along the roads of their
empire to feed their army as it traveled.
The king's court generally accompanied him while on a war campaign. This included his family,
servants, advisors, and even entertainment.
The Assyrian army was one of the first to use cavalry.
They used inflated sheep skins to keep rafts afloat while they transported heavy chariots across rivers.
They had something similar to the Pony Express to carry messages throughout the empire quickly.
KIDS’ BLOG! The Invention of the Wheel: How the
Ancient Sumerians Got Humanity Rollin’!
Posted on August 20, 2013 | 4 Comments
“Wooden Cartwheel” Image courtesy of Stoonn/ FreeDigitalPhotos.net
When we think about the invention of the wheel, the picture that jumps into our minds is the wheel from a car
or maybe an ancient Roman chariot. The earliest wheels, however, were much different than 21st century
wheels or even those used in first century battles.
The wheel was invented by the ancient Sumerians. They lived in the land between the Tigris and the Euphrates
Rivers in the Middle East. Much, much later this land became part of the country we call Iraq. The Sumerians
were the first people to develop a written language. Extensive studies of their writings have led archaeologists
and historians to also credit them with the invention of the wheel.
“Potter” Image courtesy of dan/FreeDigitalPhotos.net
The concept of the wheel actually grew out of a mechanical device that the Sumerians had invented shortly after
3500 B.C.—the potter’s wheel. No other civilization of their time had one. This was a heavy flat disk made of
hardened clay. It was spun horizontally on an axis to allow the potter to form evenly shaped jars and bowls
from wet clay. The Sumerians didn’t, however, simply turn this clay-splattered wheel on its end and hook it to
a wagon to make a wheel. Instead, the concept of the wheel went through many stages of development before it
became a practical method for moving heavy objects from one location to another.
The Sumerians’ First Wheel: “The Roller”
The wheel started out as a man-made log. The Sumerians figured out that if they could prop the
edge of a heavy crate up onto a long log-shaped object, they would be able to roll the load over the object and
move it forward. They would then place a second log under the front edge of the load and continue rolling
it. Believe it or not, this was the first wheel. Interestingly, the Sumerians did not use large logs cut from
trees. Unfortunately, trees with thick trunks did not grow where they lived. This land was very dry except for a
few swamps near the rivers. The only kinds of trees that grew there were wild fruit trees and soft palm
trees. Neither of these had thick, straight trunks that could be cut down and made into logs.The Sumerians,
however, were very creative and didn’t let that stop them. They cut flat planks from the trees and fastened them
together into the shape of a log. They then chiseled the wood down so that it would be curved enough to
roll. This was the first “wheel.”
The Sumerians’ Second Wheel: “The Sledge”
Being very practical people, the Sumerians were not satisfied with “The Roller. They
wanted an easier way to move heavy loads. Their next invention was called “The Sledge.” It did not have a
roller. Instead, they took their crate and attached a base with runners under it so that it resembled a large
sled. The front edges of these runners were curved up like skis. Because of this curve, the runners slid more
easily across the ground. There was also a straight crosspiece that connected the two runners in the front. It
braced the two runners and was used as a handle for pulling and guiding the sledge. It took a lot of pushing and
pulling, but people were able to move their loaded crates on the runners. Even though this device looked
nothing like a wheel, it accomplished the purpose of a wheel.
This sledge worked well unless the terrain was rocky or bumpy. The runners kept catching on rocks and tree
roots and jerking to a stop. The Sumerians then decided to combine their roller wheel idea with the sledge idea
and placed the sledge on top of rollers.
The Sumerians’ Third Wheel: “A Sledge on Rollers”
This type of wheel worked well as long as the ground was flat. On hillsides and inclines,
though, the runners of the sledge kept inching their way off the roller as it moved. Once the runners started
slipping sideways, it was almost impossible to inch them back into place. This was a serious problem when you
were transporting something very heavy. Too many times, one of the runners slipped off the edge of the roller
and the whole load tipped over.
But the once again Sumerians would not give up. There had to be a better answer. They noticed that after a
roller had been used for a while, it started to get grooves where the runners rubbed against the wooden
roller. They came up with a terrific idea: Why not actually cut grooves where you want the runners to ride on
the roller? This would keep them in place. The Sumerians quickly cut grooves into all their rollers and ended
up with a much more efficient wheel.
The Sumerians’ Fourth Wheel: “A Sledge on a Grooved Roller”
Still, to move loads this way was tiring and required lots of people. Just moving the rollers to
where they had to be used was an exhausting chore. The Sumerians reasoned that it might not be necessary to
use the whole heavy roller. Only the ends were actually needed to prop up the load. What would happen if they
cut out some of the excess wood in the middle of the roller and just left the two ends connected by a narrower
middle piece? The middle piece or “axle” connected the two ends and at the same time carried the load. To
keep the sledge in place, the Sumerians attached four pegs (two on each side of the sledge). The “axle” rolled
between the pegs and this kept the sledge in the right position on top of the axle. The wooden ends of the roller
were what we now call “wheels.”
The Sumerians’ Fifth Wheel: “Two Wheels With a Fixed Axle Spinning Between Pegs”
What a difference! The Sumerians now had a lighter-weight cart to carry their loads. They
tinkered with their new invention and decided to get rid of the pegs. They added a piece of wood to each side of
the cart. These pieces hung down under the cart. They then drilled holes in these pieces so that the axle could
easily roll inside them. These extra pieces were called “bearings” because they bore the weight of the cart. Now
the sledge was permanently attached to the axle and the wheels.
The Sumerians’ Sixth Wheel: “Two Wheels With an Axle, Attached With Bearings”
What the Sumerians ended up with was a two-wheeled cart. This was later developed into a
chariot that could be pulled by a horse or donkey. Other surrounding civilizations copied the design and
quickly adapted the wheel to the needs of their own cultures.
Who would ever think that a device meant for making pottery would be the inspiration for one of the greatest
and most wide-reaching inventions of mankind? Think about how many ways wheels are used today—not just
for transportation, but for manufacturing, home appliances and recreation. We are in debt to the Sumerians for
their ingenuity and persistence. Imagine how different our world would be if no one had ever invented the
wheel!
The Responsibilities of the King in Ancient Mesopotamia
by Rachel Alexander, Demand Media
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It was believed that ancient Mesopotamian kings were chosen by the gods
Though not divine themselves, but rather divinely chosen, the kings of ancient Mesopotamia acted as earthly
representatives of the gods. As stated in a Sumerian proverb, “Man is the shadow of god, but the king is god’s reflection.”
The main responsibilities of the kings involved participation in religious rituals, managing the affairs of the state in war and
peace, writing laws and guiding the administration and execution of justice.
Divine Agent
Although it was believed that the cosmic ruling body of the state in ancient Mesopotamia was the gods, a human steward
was selected to enact that cosmic order. The king was believed to be personally chosen by the gods and, although he
was acting to manifest the will of the gods, he himself was not considered to be godly. In this way, his primary role was as
a divine agent.
Military Leader
War and conquest were considered to be the divine mission of the ancient Mesopotamian kings, whose duty it was to
allocate more resources and people into their domain. They believed that in order to protect themselves and their
kingdoms they would need to expand and conquer areas of perceived threat. War was also the primary means of
economic gain as conquering meant the accrual of slave labor, people to tax and land to tribute.
Codes of Law
Another primary role of the king was to disseminate codes of law--codes that today are considered to be the world's oldest
surviving legal documents. The codes were written by the king, in the tone of a constitution, proclaiming his duty to enact
the godly will in an effort to build a more just society. The codes speak to problems of daily life from land ownership to
divorce and dowry as well as professional malpractice.
Serving Justice
Ancient Mesopotamian society was not democratic in nature, as there was no regular court system, lawyers or prisons to
aid in enacting justice. Instead the cultural characteristic of innate compliance to authority, which permeated the mindset
of the Mesopotamians, allowed for the execution of justice. The state and the will of the gods took precedence over
individual rights. The king’s role in the serving of justice was to appoint judges to decide the guilt or innocence of criminals
based on their oral testimony. He also acted to ensure punishment was bestowed upon the guilty.
Royal Game of Ur
In 1926-27, the British archeologist Leonard
Woolley, while excavating in the royal tombs of
Sumer (modern Iraq), discovered four game
boards and a number of playing pieces.
The tombs were in the city of Ur (in red on the
map on the left), once the capital of Sumer
about 2500 B.C., and the legendary home of the
Biblical Abraham. This area is in the "fertile
crescent", south of Baghdad and Babylon. There
are many references to Woolley's discovery,
complete with a number of colorful photographs
such as the one below. Woolley's finds are now
held by the British Museum.
H.J.R. Murray in his book, "Board Games Other
Than Chess", Oxford, 1952, pages 19-21,
indicated that this game is similar to the Egyptian
game of Senet, though it is a variation of the
Egyptian game in that there are a reduced
number of cells on the Ur board. Both game
boards contain a drawer which holds the playing
pieces and binary lots which are used like dice
are used in a contemporary board game to
determine the moves of the pieces. As do some
of the Senet boards, some of the Ur boards
include conical rather than flat pieces. Throwsticks or lots were included as a chance device in both games.
It appears to be a game for two players who alternate their moves on the board. Various markings
on the board (such as the "rosettes") appear to have had some consequence in the play of the game
if a piece lands on one of these squares - sort of like in a contemporary board game - "loose one
turn", "go back three spaces", etc.
There are contempory playable reproductions of this game.
Purchased in 1977 from a shop in Munich, Germany, the box
(illustrated to the left) lid is 29.6cm square x 3.3cm high, and the
box bottom is 29.3cm square x 3.5cm high. The lid has the game
name in English, German, Italian, Dutch, French, and a brief
description of the game in each of these languages on the bottom
of the box. Within the box, a molded plastic platform holds the
game board and playing pieces. The painted wooden board is
36.1cm long x 14.9cm wide x 1cm high, and is two pieces which fit
together with dowels.
There are 20 wooden playing pieces, 3.5cm diameter x .5cm high.
Ten pieces are of a light wood, and ten of dark wood. All pieces
have 5 circles stamped on both sides. On one side of each piece the
circles are painted red, and on the other side they are painted blue. There are two standard wooden
die, each 1.8cm square, each numbered from one to six. The game was manufactured by Otto Maier
Verlag, Ravensburg, Germany. The following information and instructions are included with the
Ravensburg game:
HOW TO PLAY THE GAME
No rules for the game were found. However, various factors, such as the shape and construction of
the board, indicate clearly that Ur is an ancestor of the backgammon group of games. We have
selected the most appropriate and challenging rules from among the various suggested
reconstructions. Once enjoyed by royalty, Ur can now be a "royal" pastime for all.