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AP EXAM REVIEW: KEY TERMS, PEOPLE, CONCEPTS HISTORY & APPROACHES 2-4% PEOPLE: MARY WHITON CALKINS – 1ST APA FEMALE PRES. CHARLES DARWIN – NAT. SEL., EVOLUTION, ORIGIN OF SPECIES DOROTHEA DIX – MENTAL HOSPITALS REVOLUTION IN US SIGMUND FREUD – PA G. STANLEY HALL – 1ST TO DESCRIBE ADOLESCENCE “STORM & STRESS ` WILLIAM JAMES – FATHER OF PSYCH IN US IVAN PAVLOV – DISCOVERED CC JEAN PIAGET – COGNITIVE RESEARCH/SCHEMAS, STAGES CARL ROGERS – HUMANISTIC/ UPR BF SKINNER – OC/ BEHAVIORIST MARGARET FLOY WASHBURN –1ST FEMALE PHD/ 2ND FEMALE APA JOHN B WATSON – CC & EMOTIONS (LITTLE ALBERT)/ PARENTING & ADVERTISING WILHELM WUNDT -- INTROSPECTION– FATHER OF SCIENTIFIC PSYCH – 1ST PSYCH LAB – STRUCTURALISM – ALSO TITCHENER PHILOSOPHY SHAPED EARLY PSYCH: ARISTOTLE/PLATO DESCARTES LOCKE – TABULA RASA EARLY YEARS: STRUCTURALISM FUNCTIONALISM BEHAVIORISM – PAVLOV DISCOVERY LATER: GESTALT PA/PSYCHODYNAMIC BEHAVIORISM – OC & SKINNER HUMANISM CONTEMPORARY: EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGICAL COGNITIVE PSYCH DOMAINS: BIOLOGICAL CLINICAL COGNITIVE COUNSELING DEVELOPMENTAL EDUCATIONAL EXPERIMENTAL HUMAN FACTORS INDUSTRIAL-ORGANIZATIONAL PERSONALITY PSYCHOMETRIC SOCIAL WILLIAM JAMES: PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY – 1ST TEXT – FUNCTIONALISM GESTALT PSYCH – (MAX WERTHEIMER) – EXAMINE PERSON’S TOTAL EXPERIENCE & CONTEXT – PERCEPTION MORE THAN JUST PARTS OF WHOLE APPROACHES/PERSPECTIVES – YOU ARE WHO YOU ARE BECAUSE … BEHAVIORISM – 1920-1960S DOMINATES (CONDITIONING) IVAN PAVLOV & CLASSICAL COND. (STIMULI & RESPONSE) JOHN WATSON & LITTLE ALBERT – ADDS TO PAVLOV OPERANT CONDITIONING (REINFORCEMENT & PUNISHMENT) – BF SKINNER (OPERANT CHAMBER/ SKINNER’S BOX) HUMANISTIC – 60S & 70S – HIPPIES MASLOW (HIERARCHY OF NEEDS) ROGERS (GROW OAK TREES) FREE WILL AND INDIV CHOICES HUMANS ARE GOOD PSYCHOANALYSIS/PSYCHODYNAMICS SIGMUND FREUD & NEOFREUDIANS UNCONSCIOUS MIND – (ID, EGO, SUPEREGO) CONFLICT AND MOTIVATIONS DREAM ANALYSIS REPRESSION, ANXIETY, AND DEFENSE MECHANISMS BIOLOGICAL/BIOPSYCHOLOGY/NEUROSCIENCE COGNITION AND HUMAN REACTIONS MAY BE CAUSED BY GENES INHERITED, HORMONES, NEUROTRANSMITTERS, BRAIN -- BRAIN IMAGING EVOLUTIONARY CHARLES DARWIN – ORIGIN OF SPECIES – NATURAL SELECTION – WE’VE EVOLVED COGNITIVE THINKING AND FEELING SELF TALK AND SLEF ATTRIBUTIONS CHANGE THOUGHTS – CHANGE MOOD LOOK AT HOW INTERPRET, PROCESS, AND REMEMBER SOCIO-CULTURAL/MULTICULTURAL LOOK AT HOW THOUGHTS AND BEHAVIORS VARY ACROSS CULTURES RESEARCH METHODS – 8-10% TYPES OF RESEARCH: (PURPOSE, STRENGTHS, WEAKNESSES) EXPERIMENTS CORRELATIONAL STUDIES SURVEY RESEARCH NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS CASE STUDIES RESEARCH DESIGN DETERMINES CONCLUSIONS THAT CAN BE MADE – EXPERIMENTS USE FOR C&E – USE EXPERIMENTAL CONTROLS TO REDUCE ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS (INTERVENING VARIABLES) EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: RELY UPON OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS & MEASUREMENT IN BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH INDEPENDENT VARIABLE VS DEPENDENT VARIABLE CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – LIMIT CONFIDENCE & VALIDITY CONTROL VARIABLES RANDOM SELECTION/SAMPLE (SURVEYS & CORRELATIONS) VS RANDOM ASSIGNMENT DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS INTERPRET GRAPHS CENTRAL TENDENCY =MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE STANDARD DEVIATION INFERENTIAL STATISTICS ETHICAL ISSUES – INFORM & CONSTRAIN RESEARCH ETHICAL GUIDELINES: -- PROTECT PARTICIPANTS & PROMOTE SOUND ETHICAL PRACTICE APA FEDERAL REGULATIONS LOCAL/UNIVERSITY INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARDS TERMS: HINDSIGHT BIAS, APPLIED VS BASIC RESEARCH, EXPERIMENTS – (CAUSE & EFFECT) INDEPENDENT VS DEPENDENT VARIABLE, EXPERIMENTAL VS CONTROL GROUP (HAWTHORNE EFFECT – AFFECT PERFORMANCE JUST BY SELECTING EXPER. GROUP), PLACEBO, PLACEBO EFFECT, EXPERIMENTER BIAS, SUBJECT BIAS, CONFOUNDING VARIABLES, RANDOM SAMPLING, RANDOM ASSIGNMENT (CONTROLS FOR PARTICIPANT-RELEVANT CONFOUNDING VARIABLES/RESPONSE OR PARTICIPANT BIAS LIKE DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS OR SOCIAL DESIRABILITY ANSWERS), SINGLE & DOUBLE BLINDS, GROUP MATCHING, STRATIFIED SAMPLING, SAMPLE, GENERALIZATION OF RESULTS (USE RANDOM & REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES) , HYPOTHESIS (CAN’T BE PROVEN), THEORY, OPERATIONAL DEFINITION, VALIDITY, RELIABILITY, REPLICATION, PARTICIPANTS/SUBJECTS, CONFEDERATES, POPULATION, REPRESENTATIVE, RANDOM SELECTION (PICK FROM HAT), SITUATIONRELEVANT CONFOUNDING VARIABLES, LABORATORY VS FIELD EXPERIMENTS CORRELATIONAL STUDIES – DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION, POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE CORRELATION, EX POST FACTO STUDY, IF NO RELATIONSHIP B/W 2 VARIABLES, THEN NO CORRELATION, STRONG OR WEAK (CORRELATION COEFFICIENT -- -1 TO +1 / 0 MEANS NO COR.) CORRELATION GRAPHED W/ SCATTER PLOT & LINE OF BEST FIT OR REGRESSION LINE SURVEYS – LOW RESPONSE RATE, NOT ALWAYS TRUTHFUL NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION – IN NATURAL HABITAT, VS FIELD EXPERIMENT CASE STUDY – SMALL GROUP BUT MORE DETAIL DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS –(SIMPLY DESCRIBE SET OF DATA) STATS INCLUDE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION LIKE FREQUENCY POLYGONS (LINE GRAPHS) OR HISTOGRAMS (BAR GRAPHS), Y-AXIS – VERTICAL, X-AXIS – HORIZONTAL, MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (MEAN, MEDIAN, MODE), EXTREME SCORES OR OUTLIERS SKEW DISTRIBUTIONS, POSITIVELY SKEWED – CONTAINS MORE LOW SCORES THAN HIGH ONES, NEGATIVELY SKEWED – CONTAINS MORE HIGH SCORES THAN LOW, RANGE, VARIANCE, STANDARD DEVIATION (SQUARE ROOT OF THE VARIANCE) – THE HIGHER THE MORE SPREAD OUT THE DISTRIBUTION IS (FROM THE MEAN), Z SCORES (DISTANCE FROM MEAN IN STANDARD DEVIATION UNITS) – NEGATIVE Z SCORE VS POSITIVE Z SCORES, NORMAL CURVE – BELL SHAPE (68% OF SCORES FALL WITHI 1 STANDARD DEV. OF MEAN, 95% W/IN 2 S.D., 99% W/IN 3 S.D.), PERCENTILES – DISTANCE OF SCORE FROM 0 – 90 PERCENTILE ABOVE 90% OF PEOPLE INFERENTIAL STATISTICS – PURPOSE: TO DETERMINE WHETHER FINDINGS CAN BE APPLIED TO THE LARGER POPULATION FROM WHICH THE SAMPLE WAS SELECTED, SAMPLING ERROR (SAMPLE DIFFERS FROM POPULATION – CAN’T GENERALIZE), USE T TESTS, ANOVAs, MANOVAs TO TEST (LOOK AT MAGNITUDE IN DIFFERENCE B/W EXPER & CONTROL GROUP AND SIZE OF SAMPLE) – ALL YIELD p value (SMALLER VALUES = MORE SIGNIFICANT RESLUTS – p value OF .05 MEANS THAT A 5% CHANCE EXIST THAT THE RESULTS OCCURRED BY CHANCE – NEVER GET p value OF ZERO) APA ETHICAL GUIDELINES – ACADEMIC RESEARCH MUST BE 1ST PROPOSE TO ETHICS/ INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD (IRB), ANIMALS – A) CLEAR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSE, B) CARE FOR AND HOUSE IN HUMANE WAY, C) ACQUIRE SUBJECTS LEGALLY (USUALLY FROM ACCREDITED COMPANY), D) LEAST AMOUNT OF SUFFERING FEASIBLE HUMANS – A) VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION (NO COERCION), B) INFORMED CONSENT, C) ANONYMITY/CONFIDENTIALITY, D) NO SIGNIFICANT MENATL OR PHYSICAL RISK (ESP. LONG TERM), E) DEBRIEFING LONGITUDINAL STUDIES – DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES – ACROSS CULTURE & SOCIETY