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AFTER
THE WAR
COMMEMORATION AND CELEBRATION IN EUROPE
t
Applied Research
t
Applied Research
omslag-eng.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 13:24 Pagina 2
Editorial Team
© Nationaal Comite 4 en 5 mei
Amsterdam, November 2014
Dutch texts on Western Europe: Renske Krimp ma
Dutch texts on Eastern Europe: Remco Reiding
Dutch texts, General Introduction and Introduction
to Photo Essay: Esther Captain PhD
Image selection: Mieke Sobering
Photo Essay: Otto Snoek
English translation & copyediting: Word’s Worth,
– www.wordsworth.nl
Design & layout: Martijn Luns – www.bureauLuns.nl
Printing: Roto Smeets, Utrecht
Copyright of the texts is maintained by the National Committee for 4 and 5 May and by the individual authors. Reproduction in whole or in part is not permitted. Photos and
illustrations are copyright. The National Committee for 4
and 5 May has attempted to trace the copyright owners of
the photographic material and to acquire their consent for
this publication. Whosoever claims copyright, personality
right, any other right, or privacy infringement, is advised
to contact the National Committee for 4 and 5 May.
This report was printed using plant-based ink on FSC certified paper.
ISBN 978-90-77294-12-3
www.4en5mei.nl
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After the War | Commemoration and Celebration
in Europe
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Table of Content
4
6
Introduction
Analysis: To every Nation its Own
Commemoration
10
12
14
16
18
19
20
21
23
24
25
27
28
29
30
32
33
35
36
37
Western Europe and Israel
The Netherlands
Belgium
Denmark
Germany
Finland
Greece
France
Ireland
Iceland
Italy, San Marino and Vatican City
Luxembourg
Malta
Norway
Austria
Portugal, Spain and Andorra
Turkey
United Kingdom
Sweden
Switzerland and Liechtenstein
Israel
39
40
On the Edges of Protocol
Photo Essay by Otto Snoek
55
57
61
63
64
66
68
70
71
73
74
75
77
78
79
81
82
84
86
88
90
Eastern Europe
Soviet Union (1922-1991)
Russia
Ukraine
Belarus
Estonia
Latvia
Lithuania
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Georgia
Yugoslavia (1917-1992)
Croatia
Macedonia
Serbia
Slovenia
Bulgaria
Hungary
Poland
Romania
Slovakia
Czech Republic
92
93
Bios and Sources
Editorial Team
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H
4
A FTER TH E WAR
Introduction
ow does Europe commemorate World War
II and celebrate liberation? Recently The
Dutch National Committee for 4 and 5 May
discussed what shape war commemorations
should take in the future. This also prompted the
question how other European countries are currently
observing war anniversaries. The committee already
had some data at its disposal, gathered in 1995 in a
joint research project with the Dutch Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and Dutch embassies abroad. The
project had revealed a general inaccessibility of
relevant information since few countries had an organization dedicated to war remembrance.
As far as we know, no new studies have been conducted
into national commemorative and celebratory practices in Europe after 1995. It seemed sensible, therefore, to do new research into current commemoration traditions in Europe. In keeping with the
National Committee’s applied research remit, Renske
Krimp and Remco Reiding carried out a short-term
research project in 2013. This report reflects their
findings.
Their study starts from the situation in The Netherlands. This country observes the anniversary of the
war’s end on two consecutive days, 4 and 5 May. On
the 4th , the nation remembers the victims of World
War II. On the 5th , the Dutch celebrate the liberation
from German and Japanese occupation and the
blessings of liberty in a more general sense. The
Dutch tradition of remembrance and celebration is
a relatively new one. So, for this study, we asked ourselves what lessons our nation could learn from
others. What do other countries commemorate and
celebrate, and when? Who is involved? What issues
are these countries debating, if any, with regard to
post-war commemoration and celebration?
Scope | This publication describes 45 countries in all,
including several city-states in Western Europe and
one non-European country: Israel. We included Israel
because many of its inhabitants are first, second or
third-generation immigrants from Europe. As a result
of this demographic, war experiences in Europe have
informed Israel’s commemoration culture. In fact,
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the memory of the Holocaust was central to the rationale for establishing the state of Israel. This report
also includes data from the former Yugoslavia and
the Soviet Union. We included them because recent
Eastern European history and its influence on commemoration and celebration cannot be understood
without acknowledging the commemorative legacy
of these conglomerate states. Due to time restrictions, we could not include overseas territories of
the nations in this study.
How to Read this Report | Before reading this report,
it is helpful to know how it is structured. Each country
is listed individually. Each country section begins
with general observations and analysis. The countries
have been divided into Eastern and Western Europe
along the historical dividing line that emerged after
World War II. Roughly speaking, that line is former
Nazi Germany; everything to the west is treated as
The section on Western Europe starts with The Netherlands, the point of departure for this study. The remaining Western European nations are discussed in
the order in which they appeared in the orginal,
Dutch version of this study.
Eastern European countries are clustered as follows:
first the former Soviet Socialist Republics, followed
by the former Yugoslav Republics and finally other
Eastern and Central European countries. For each
country, we have included a list of commemorations
and celebrations.
For readability’s sake, most of the references are not included in this text, but are retrievable online at:
www.4en5mei.nl/onderzoek/toegepastonderzoek
/her-denken_en_vieren_in_Europa
Finally, we must stress that this report is no more than
a snapshot. As if to illustrate this point, Ukraine saw
daily anti-government protests while the researchers
were rounding off this study. It is impossible to predict how this situation will develop and what impact
it will have on commemoration practices. This publication is a first exploration of the way in which Europe commemorates the loss resulting from war and
– where applicable – celebrates the freedom brought
by war’s end. Hopefully, this study will provide new
insights, spark off fresh debate about commemoration and celebration, and engender innovative research
questions. |
Amsterdam, March 2014
5
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Methodology | This report is based on questionnaires,
literature studies, our own research and an exchange
of knowledge with key people at embassies and in
networks such as the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA). Our researchers started
gathering information by sending questionnaires to
foreign embassies in The Netherlands and to Dutch
diplomatic missions in Europe. At least one questionnaire was sent to a total of 51 states, some of
which do not host a consular post of The Netherlands. The researchers received at least one response
from 41 countries, and from some countries two or
more responses. For some non-respondent countries, we were able to describe commemoration and
celebration practices based on other sources. Some
countries, however, were left out entirely because researchers either were unable to obtain sufficient information or ran out of time for additional research
(Albania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cyprus, Kosovo,
Moldova, Montenegro). The questionnaires proved
to be an excellent means of collecting information
in a short period of time. The responses to the closed
questions provided useful comparative data and also
proved a rich source of contacts who dealt with our
additional questions and requests for in-depth interviews.
Western Europe and all countries to the east as Eastern Europe. Because this division influenced the development of commemoration in European nations,
it became a guiding principle for the structure of
this report. The division also reflects the expertise
of historians Renske Krimp and Remco Reiding, who
are specialized in Western Europe and Eastern Europe
respectively. Since the war, the face of Europe has
undergone major changes. Some countries categorized as Eastern European in this publication are
now members or aspiring members of the European
Union.
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W
6
A FTER TH E WAR
Analysis
To every
nation its
own
commemoration
hen people speak of ‘the war’ in The
Netherlands, they mean World War II,
which consisted of the invasion by Nazi
Germany, the German occupation and
the Allied liberation. In many other countries, the
war took a radically different course. Poland, for
instance, was invaded from both sides, while Spain
was mostly left untouched and some countries
(like England, Switzerland and Azerbaijan) were
never occupied. Likewise, the end of the war
brought vastly different experiences in different
places. The Netherlands welcomed Americans,
Canadians, Brits and Poles as their liberators, while
the Baltic states saw the Soviet Army as their new
occupiers.
In The Netherlands, armed conflict lasted six days,
while in Russia, Belarus and Ukraine it raged on
for years. The Holocaust took the lives of 700 Jews
from Norway, and over two million Jews from
Poland. In other words, no two European nations
experienced the same war, or the same aftermath
of war. For some, World War II was a brief disruption of the status quo, while for others it marked a
radical change because of territory lost (Hungary),
borders redrawn (Poland) or the end of independence and (renewed) occupation (the Baltic states).
Just as the war was different for every nation, so
are its commemorations. Our study shows that the
historical and geopolitical context and the war’s
impact on the population determine the shape and
popularity of commemorations.
Whether and how a country commemorates war
depends on:
– the death toll;
– the extent of persecution (e.g. Jews, Roma);
– how much armed conflict took place;
– which side the country was on (commemorating lives lost fighting for the Axis powers is controversial);
– the extent of foreign occupation;
– war-related geopolitical changes (loss of independence or territory);
– losses suffered in World War I or recent armed
conflicts.
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Some countries that did not actively participate in
World War II do organize commemorations as a
warning against repeating history, e.g. Spain’s Holocaust Memorial Day.
Commemoration and/or Celebration | The Netherlands and Denmark are the only two European
countries that have separate Remembrance and Liberation days, on 4 and 5 May. Most nations mark
the anniversary of World War II on a single day,
often on the date when Nazi Germany capitulated
(former Soviet Union), the country was occupied
(Greece) or liberated (Norway), or the population
rose up in rebellion (former Yugoslav Republics).
Where a single day is devoted to World War II, it
can be hard to determine whether it is a day of
commemoration, celebration, or both. This ambiguity was also apparent in the responses to our
questionnaire. In Russia, Ukraine and Georgia, the
military parade, the focus on veterans and the fireworks on Victory Day suggest a celebration, but 9
May is also the day to commemorate the millions
of war victims. The Russians call it ‘a celebration
with tears in their eyes’.
7
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Who Do We Commemorate? | Commemorations
are marked by the symbolism of mourning:
wreaths, candles and low-key, reflective ceremonies.
Commemoration in Western Europe is deeply influenced by World War I. Commemoration dates often
have their roots in the Great War. Belgium, Great
Britain, Serbia and Malta remember only or mostly
World War I victims. The French remember the
victims of World War I and II on separate dates
and Turkey mainly commemorates World War I
battles led by Atatürk. But in these countries too,
World War II is gaining more importance in commemoration.
Israeli and German flags flying at half staff in front of the German
Several Western European nations (The Netherlands,
Norway, Finland, the UK and Ireland) have expanded their World War II commemoration to include victims of more recent peacekeeping missions
and wars.
Poland has a national holiday to commemorate the
Warsaw Uprising. It also has separate days to remember the Nazi and Soviet invasions, the mass
murder of officers in Katyn, the victims of Nazi
concentration camps and the persecution of Sinti
and Roma.
Reichstag to mark Holocaust Memorial Day, Berlin, 27 January 2010.
(© Reuters/Fabrizio Bensch)
Former Soviet Republics typically commemorate
Soviet soldiers and honor World War II veterans
on Victory Day. Former Yugoslavia tends to focus
on the Partisans who fought the occupying forces.
The Baltic states remember all victims of war on
both sides, except war criminals.
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Western Europe tends to commemorate its own citizens and soldiers, and in some cases its liberators
(Austria). National victims of persecution are usually remembered during the national commemoration, while Holocaust victims are commemorated
on Holocaust Memorial Day. Western European
countries often have a separate day for commemorating the dead or honoring veterans.
8
A FTER TH E WAR
Holocaust Memorial Day – In 2005, the President of
the UN General Assembly declared 27 January
International Holocaust Remembrance Day (or
Holocaust Memorial Day). The Holocaust is the
systematic genocide of the Jews in World War II.
The date marks the anniversary of the liberation of
Auschwitz in 1945. A growing number of countries
are taking part in this initiative and organize events
on this date.
One of the driving forces behind Holocaust Memorial
Day is the International Holocaust Remembrance
Alliance. The IHRA lobbies for remembrance,
education and research with the aim of ensuring
the Holocaust is never forgotten. As of 2014, it has
31 member countries, mostly in Europe.
In most former Soviet Republics, the Holocaust gets
less attention, partly because of the staggering 26
million Soviet lives lost in World War II. In addition,
the USSR structurally suppressed national and ethnic sentiments; the Holocaust as such was not acknowledged. Armenia’s limited recognition of the
Holocaust is partly rooted in Israel’s refusal to acknowledge the Armenian genocide.
Various Central European countries do not recognize
Holocaust Memorial Day, but do remember the
genocide of the Jews on dates when key events in
their own country took place, for example the first
deportations (Romania, Macedonia), the establishment or destruction of a ghetto (Hungary, Lithuania), the adoption of repressive laws (Slovakia) or
the burning down of a synagogue (Latvia).
Celebrating Freedom | Not all countries have a special day to celebrate their liberation or freedom,
like The Netherlands on 5 May, but many do uphold
the same values in other ways. Countries may celebrate winning the war (Victory Day in Russia), or
winning a particular battle (Turkey, Finland), or
gaining independence (Independence Day, Day of
the Republic, Constitution Day). These days tend
to emphasize national unity and are usually celebrated with great fanfare, military parades, concerts
and/or fireworks. These are major, if not the most
important, public holidays.
Birth and Evolution of Traditions | Traditions do
not evolve solely from a society’s wants and needs,
they can also be a vehicle for governments to create
social cohesion. In the Soviet Union, for instance,
World War II commemoration evolved into remembering a heroic struggle against a common enemy.
Victory Day became a way for the Communist
regime to stress the need for a unanimously communist Eastern European bloc against the capitalist
West. In times of political change, holidays gain
even more importance because they are an opportunity for the authorities to lay a symbolic foundation for their ideology. Since the collapse of the
Eastern Bloc, the commemorative calendar in the
former Warsaw Pact countries has seen many
changes. Independence gave governments a chance
to start differentiating.
The Baltic states immediately distanced themselves
from communism by abolishing old commemorations and establishing new traditions aimed at remembering the victims of the Communist reign of
terror. The tone changed from celebratory to commemorative. In a similar move, war monuments
from the Soviet era were defaced (Bulgaria), moved
(Estonia) or torn down (Georgia). These incidents
angered Moscow, local ethnic Russians and local
Communists.
Some countries made more subtle changes by renaming Victory Day ‘Victory over Fascism’ Day and
adding new national commemoration days to celebrate independence, the constitution or the national
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9
of the D-Day landings, at the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in Colleville-sur-Mer, 6 June 2014.
(© Reuters/Kevin Lamarque)
flag. In the former Yugoslav republics, several governments moved Anti-Fascist Struggle Day to the
date on which their republic established its own
Partisan unit.
The Future of Commemoration | Commemorative
and celebratory traditions are not etched in stone.
In The Netherlands too, they are the subject of ongoing debate. Traditions often propagate a symbolic
ideal (like ‘Never Again’). However, a change of government can rekindle the debate on what these traditions symbolize.
With a dwindling number of survivors, the war is
turning from personal memory into history. This
shift also changes the meaning assigned to the war.
In 2011, Norway renamed its commemoration day
Veterans Day and widened the focus to victims of
more recent wars. This does not mean that the custom of commemoration is dying out, however. In
2012, Serbia introduced a public holiday devoted
to the commemoration of World War I.
A Single European Commemoration? – A remembrance
day for all of Europe seems a long way off. After
all, every nation remembers its own war victims
and celebrates its own liberation or freedom. Holocaust Memorial Day is one of the few international
commemorations and its recognition is on the rise.
However, this day commemorates a specific group
of victims and nowhere in Europe does it have a
national character. Several EU member states recognize 9 May as Europe Day and some give civil
servants the day off, but the holiday is not widely
known. |
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Barack Obama (R) and his French counterpart Francois Hollande, after laying a wreath to mark the 70th Anniversary
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The Netherlands
On 4 May, The Netherlands commemorates
Dutch victims of World War II. On 5 May, the
country celebrates its freedom.
10
A FTER TH E WAR
Western
Europe
and Israel
T
he division of commemoration and celebration
into two separate days was the result of pressure
from resistance groups immediately after the war.
Former resistance members considered it inappropriate to celebrate freedom and mourn the dead
on the same day. They felt the emotions evoked
were incompatible.
Local Traditions | Since The Netherlands did not
participate in World War I and had no war victims
to remember, the country had a blank canvas for
devising its own commemorations and celebrations
after World War II. Dutch traditions developed locally. Every city or village had a council, committee,
association or foundation that organized a remembrance ceremony on 4 May (or a date of greater local significance), and festivities on 5 May. Other
commemorations, organized by national war victims’ associations, mark the liberation of camps
where Dutch people died, such as Mauthausen,
Auschwitz and Ravensbrück. Forced laborers and
hostages also commemorate their war pasts on specific dates. And there are special ceremonies to
Main Public Holidays
27 Apr. King’s Day
4 May (1945) Remembrance Day, in honor of the Dutch
victims of World War II and all armed conflicts since
(working day)
5 May (1945) Liberation Day, anniversary of the German
capitulation and the beginning of freedom
Commemoration Days (working days)
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the
liberation of Auschwitz
15 Aug. (1945) End of the Japanese occupation of the Dutch
East Indies (now Indonesia)
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National commemoration ceremony on the occasion of Remembrance Day on Dam Square, Amsterdam, 4 May 2012.
(© Onno de Bever)
commemorate major events such as the Rotterdam
Blitz. On 15 August, The Netherlands commemorates the Japanese capitulation and the war victims
in the former Dutch East Indies colony, now Indonesia. Apart from 4 and 5 May, there are at least 40
other days on the yearly calendar when a war-related
event is commemorated. World War II as a whole
is commemorated on 4 May, national Remembrance Day.
Remembrance Day | At 8 p.m. on 4 May, the Dutch
nation observes two minutes of silence in memory
of the victims of war. The Netherlands remembers
the Dutch victims of all armed conflicts since the
start of World War II. The ceremony in Amsterdam
generally follows a ‘fixed’ protocol with recurring
elements. The memorandum describing who is remembered has been updated several times over the
past 70 years. In 1961, the group was expanded to
include war victims from other armed conflicts
since World War II, e.g. in the Dutch East Indies,
New Guinea and Korea. Later, those who died during
peacekeeping missions were added. Remembrance
Day is the only collective ceremony in The Netherlands that commemorates all these victims.
The proceedings on Amsterdam’s Dam Square are
attended by the monarch, MPs and cabinet members. At 6 p.m., the flag is raised and then lowered
to half staff. The ceremony is preceded by a commemorative service in De Nieuwe Kerk, which is
broadcast live on national radio and TV.
Shortly before 8 p.m. the Dutch monarch lays a wreath
at the National War Memorial on Dam Square. Immediately afterwards, a bugle call – the Taptoe, the
Dutch equivalent of the Last Post – signals the start
of the two-minute silence. Next, the first verse of
the Dutch national anthem is sung. Then the winner
of an annual young people’s poetry contest recites
the winning poem. This is followed by a wreathlaying ceremony at the war memorial. Survivors are
the first to lay a wreath, because their experiences
are key. Next, a prominent Dutch citizen addresses
the crowd and four more wreaths are laid by the
speakers of both houses of parliament, the cabinet,
the armed forces and the city of Amsterdam.
Celebrating Freedom | On 5 May, The Netherlands
celebrates its enduring freedom. That day is the
anniversary of the German surrender. It is when
the country celebrates its liberation from German
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occupation and the end of the Japanese occupation
in Asia in 1945, and the fact that since then, it has
been free from war and oppression. However, because people elsewhere are still suffering from
armed conflicts and human rights violations, 5 May
is also a day for the Dutch nation to reflect on the
lack of freedom in other countries.
12
A FTER TH E WAR
The National Celebration of Liberation Day is a pivotal
moment between the 4 May commemorations and
the 5 May festivities. Also known as the Fifth of
May Address, it is held in a different Dutch province
every year. This province highlights the blessings
of freedom in the run-up to the event. Since 1997,
the National Committee for 4 and 5 May has invited
a prominent speaker to deliver the address reflecting on the fragility of freedom.
Liberation Festivals | In the afternoon of 5 May, 14
liberation festivals take place in the 12 Dutch
provinces and 2 major cities. People celebrate their
freedom at live concerts, but the festivals also feature more reflective content, such as debates and
NGO information booths. The underlying idea is
that 5 May is not just a party, but also an occasion
to appreciate the privileges of living in freedom.
Liberation festivals are a chance for young people
to realize that liberty should not be taken for
granted. The festivals have become the largest oneday cultural event in The Netherlands, drawing as
many as one million visitors. Every year, the National
Committee for 4 and 5 May appoints Ambassadors
of Freedom: well-known Dutch performing artists
who generate media attention in the run-up to 5 May.
On the day itself, the Ministry of Defense flies the
Ambassadors in army helicopters from one festival
stage to another.
The day’s festivities conclude with the 5 May Concert
on the River Amstel, attended by the King, MPs
and cabinet members. Every year, a different Dutch
orchestra and famous Dutch artists perform on a
stage in the middle of the river. This free concert is
broadcast live on TV, drawing more than one million
viewers. |
Belgium
C
ommemoration in Belgium revolves mainly
around World War I, or the Great War, which
devastated the country. This goes for the Walloon
region, but even more so for Flanders. Ypres, which
is centrally located in the Flemish Westhoek region,
is home to the popular In Flanders Fields museum.
It is also home to the Menin Gate Memorial to the
Missing, where the missing soldiers of Commonwealth nations are commemorated. Every evening
at 8 p.m., there is a ceremony to commemorate the
victims of World War I. This attracts many visitors;
the battlefields at Ypres have become a popular
tourist destination. World War I figures prominently
in Belgium’s national collective memory. Remembrance Day is on 11 November, the date on which
Main Public Holidays
11 July (1973) Day of the Flemish Community, in honor of the
victory against the French army in 1302 (observed by
the Flemish community only)
21 July (1831) Belgian National Day, anniversary of the King’s
oath of allegiance to the constitution (1831) (day off)
27 Sept. (1975) Holiday, in honor of the victory of the French
patriots in 1831 (observed by the French community
only)
15 Nov. (1831) King’s Day, an official holiday in Belgium’s
German-speaking community
Commemoration Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the
liberation of Auschwitz
11 Nov. (1918) Remembrance Day, the national
commemoration of both World Wars (on 11 Nov. or
the Sunday closest to it)
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the armistice of World War I was signed in 1918.
Wallonia focuses its commemoration on the Battle
of the Bulge (December 1944 and January 1945),
which is seen as the last battle on Belgian soil. The
Battle of the Bulge is remembered every year in
many Wallonian villages and towns, e.g. Bastogne,
La Roche-en-Ardenne and Vielsalm. Small ceremonies
remind onlookers of the victims and of the heavy
fighting that took place in the Ardennes.
Remembrance Day | Since 1970, Remembrance Day
in Belgium has been devoted to commemorating
all the men and women who have given their lives
for freedom since World War I. This includes the
victims of World War II. Civil society organizations,
such as the Flemish 11.11.11 coalition, organize local
ceremonies all over the country. The coalition’s
name refers to the time and date when World War
I ended, i.e. on 11 November at 11 o’clock in the
morning. At the national level, the Ministry of the
Interior is involved in organizing Remembrance
Day. Every year, the king, who is commander-inchief of the armed forces, lays a wreath at the Monument for the Unknown Soldier in Brussels in the
presence of the prime minister and representatives
of war veterans’ organizations. Another important
ceremony is the Poppy Parade at the Menin Gate
in Ypres. Dignitaries, religious leaders, war veterans’
representatives and international guests carry images of poppies through the town center, after which
buglers sound the Last Post. Every year, different
foreign representatives are invited to attend the 11
November ceremonies. In 2011, for instance, several
Olympic Medal winners were invited.
In addition to Remembrance Day, Belgium also observes Holocaust Memorial Day and Yom HaShoah
to remember the victims of the Holocaust.|
Remembrance Day ceremony at the Menin Gate in Ypres,
11 November 2011. (© Menenpoort Huis)
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Denmark
L
ike The Netherlands, Denmark remained neutral
during World War I and therefore did not have a
tradition of national remembrance until after World
War II. These days, Denmark has no fewer than
five freedom celebrations and remembrance days
for war victims, and is debating establishing a
sixth.
14
A FTER TH E WAR
Befrielse | Since 1945, 5 May marks the celebration
of the liberation – Befrielse – from Nazi Germany.
The victims of World War II are remembered on the
eve of this Liberation Day. When BBC radio officially
announced the liberation at 8:30 p.m. on 4 May
1945, many Danes responded by lighting a candle
in their window. This has become tradition ever
since. A collective commemoration of the war dead
is held ever year at Mindelunden, where many Danish victims lie buried. Wreaths are laid, there is a
military parade and the national anthem is played.
Local ceremonies are held at several historical sites.
Main Public holidays
5 May (1945) Befrielse, or Liberation Day (working day )
5 June (1849) Constitution Day (half a day off)
5 Sept. (2009) a flag-flying day honoring Danish military
veterans and personnel who have served abroad
Other Commemoration Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the
liberation of Auschwitz (working day)
9 Apr. (1943) Occupation Day, when Nazi Germany invaded
Denmark
4 May (1945) Remembrance Day (working day)
The 4 and 5 May ceremonies in Denmark are organized by survivors’ organizations. The government
is only actively involved in every fifth anniversary
commemoration (in 2010, 2015, etc.). These are
attended by the head of state. However, the prime
minister, the education minister and several members of parliament are present every year, as are
several British representatives. The commemoration focuses on remembering Danish civilian victims and their liberators. Although the 4 and 5 May
ceremonies are officially dedicated to World War
II, younger people’s speeches refer to current conflicts elsewhere in the world too. Public interest in
4 and 5 May is waning as World War II recedes
further into the past. Just as in The Netherlands,
Liberation Day is an official holiday, but employees
do not get the day off work.
Wide Genocide Commemoration | A second Danish remembrance day for victims of World War II
and the Holocaust is 9 April. On this day in 1943,
the Nazi occupation of Denmark began. Germans
and their former allies are explicitly invited to attend
this commemoration. The Danish people believe
that all victims should be remembered on this day,
so there is no controversy about including Germans
in the commemoration. However, this day is subject to another controversy in Danish society; the
Resistance Museum considered striking this holiday from the calendar due to lack of public interest.
This provoked such vehement popular protests that
the move has been postponed for the time being.
April 9 will continue to be commemorated until
2015 at least.
The third Danish commemoration day is dedicated
to the Danes who have been killed on deployment
in international post-World War II conflicts, for example on UN missions in Gaza in 1956 and in the
Balkans, Iraq and Afghanistan over the past few
decades. These people are remembered on 5 September, a flag-flying day officially recognized as a
public holiday since 2009.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 15
15
den memorial park in Ryvangen, Hellerup, Copenhagen,
4 May 2008 (© Polfoto/Jens Panduro)
On 27 January, Denmark acknowledges Holocaust
Memorial Day, using this day to remember not only
the victims of the Holocaust but all victims of genocides since World War II. In 2013, extra ceremonies
were held to commemorate the measures taken
against the Jews 70 years prior, in October 1943.
Recently, a debate has erupted about whether 29 August should become another day of commemoration. On that day in 1943, the Danish authorities
stopped cooperating with the Germans amid growing popular protest against their appeasement of
the occupiers. Some Danes wish to mark this event
on 29 August, but so far this proposal has not been
approved. |
Queen Margrethe of Denmark attending the commemoration of the
60th anniversary of Denmark’s Liberation at Mindelunden memorial
park in Ryvangen, Hellerup, Copenhagen, 5 May 2005.
(© Polfoto/Christensen Klavs Bo)
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Commemoration of Denmark’s Liberation at Mindelun-
Its organization is in the hands of the Danish International Veterans’ Association, the same group that
works with the Ministry of Defense to organize the
celebrations on Constitution Day, on 5 June. This
Grundlovsdag is seen as an opportunity to honor
the heroes who fought for the Danish nation.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 16
Germany
V
ast amounts have been published about German
commemoration culture. Two good reasons for
this are Germany’s extensive war past and its prominent role in those wars. Another reason is that the
Germans in recent decades have developed an extraordinarily self-reflexive view of their nation’s past.
Volkstrauertag | Since 1919, Germany has marked
Volkstrauertag, a national day of mourning held on
16 November, or the Sunday closest to it. This day
was established to commemorate German soldiers
who died in World War I. It was not officially recognized, however, because the Weimar constitution
made no provisions for special holidays. As a result,
the day has a different status from state to state
within federal Germany. The National Socialists
were the first to enshrine it, assigning it the official
status of Heldengedenktag or Heroes Commemoration Day. Hero worship became its main ingredient,
with the party (NSDAP) and the Wehrmacht at center
stage. Joseph Goebbels issued guidelines for the
celebrations; in 1939, he decreed that the nation’s
flag be flown at full rather than half staff from then
on. The Nazi regime changed the date of the festivities several times.
16
A FTER TH E WAR
International commemoration ceremony attended by
foreign representatives on the eve of
Volkstrauertag,
Lilienthalstraße,
Berlin,
16 November 2013.
(© Uwe Zucchi)
Public Holiday (day off)
3 Oct. (1990) German Unity Day (day off)
Commemoration Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day,
anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz
(working day)
16 Nov. (1919) Volkstrauertag, national
commemoration of the dead (on 16 Nov.
or the Sunday closest to it)
It was not until 1952 that the ‘celebratory’ nature of
this commemoration was re-evaluated. In order to
break with hero worship and reinstate its character
as a day of mourning, Parliament moved the new
national remembrance day toward the end of the
Christian year. This season is theologically linked
to death and finiteness. Ever since, Volkstrauertag
has been observed in November, primarily as a day
of mourning.
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17
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Commemorating the dead at the Soviet Union war monument and war graves on the eve of Volkstrauertag,
Schönholzer Heide, Berlin, 16 November 2013. (© Uwe Zucchi)
On this day, Germans remember all war victims since
the end of World War I and other victims of terrorism
and violence worldwide. It is devoted to German and
Allied military victims, as well as victims of persecution and civilian casualties. Germany’s Volkstrauertag is organized by the Volksbund Deutsche
Kriegsgräberfürsorge (the German war graves organization) in collaboration with the Federal Republic of Germany. The head of state, government
officials and MPs are involved. The Bundestag observes a ‘remembrance hour,’ during which the federal president delivers an address before the chancellor and the government. Apart from speeches,
there is also music. The meeting concludes with
the German national anthem and another song: Der
Gute Kamerad. Survivors and the relatives of victims
also play a part. Every year, foreign ambassadors
and military attachés are invited to attend. Other
fixed ceremonies on Volkstrauertag include the lay-
ing of wreaths, a moment of silence, a silent march
and a trumpet solo. Commemorations and an hour
of remembrance are held nationwide.
Public interest in Volkstrauertag is waning as the numbers of those who lived through World War II decline. These were the generations who donated most
to the war graves body that organizes the commemorative ceremonies. This is having an impact on the
events organized and the number of people attending at the local level in particular.
Kristallnacht | In addition to Volkstrauertag, Germany
has many local commemorations. These are held at
different locations including former concentration
camps and execution sites. Such local events are
held on Holocaust Memorial Day and in memory of
Kristallnacht. So far, the country has not introduced
a specific time or event to celebrate its freedom. |
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Finland
F
18
A FTER TH E WAR
inland commemorates all victims of the violence
of war on the third Sunday in May, its national
commemoration day. Initially, in 1940, the Fins
commemorated all casualties of wars the nation
had been involved in. Over time, new Finnish
victims were included, such as soldiers who had
been killed in peacekeeping missions. The third
Sunday in May has strongly religious overtones.
Many commemorative ceremonies are held in
churches after Sunday mass.
Veterans Day and Flag Day | Finland also has commemoration days specifically for its armed forces
and war veterans.
National Defense Organizations marching along
Tampere Hall, Tampere, Finland, on Independence Day,
6 December 2013. (© ANP/Lehtikuva)
A veterans’ lobby achieved their goal of a National Veterans Day in 1986. Since then, the day known as
KansallinenVeteraanipaiva has been celebrated every
year on 27 April. On this day in 1945, World War II
and the war in Lapland ended. This public holiday
is marked by flag flying, a national ceremony and
local events in many churches. Honor guards pay
respects at war grave sites and wreaths are laid.
Public Holidays
4 June (1952) Flag Day (working day)
6 Dec. (1917) Independence Day, anniversary of
Finland’s independence from Russia (day
off)
Other Commemoration Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day,
anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz
(working day)
27 Apr. (1945) Veterans Day (working day)
3rd Sun. in May National
Remembrance Day for
all wars
The sacrifices of the Finnish armed forces in World
War II are commemorated on a separate day. The
4th of June is Flag Day and the birthday of Marshal
Carl Gustaf Mannerheim, the country’s World War
II commander-in-chief. The day his been marked
by a parade since 1952, one year after his death. The
first of these was held in Helsinki and it has moved
to a new location every year since. Finland’s president always attends and awards decorations to military personnel.
Independence Day | The Fins celebrate their independence on 6 December. This public holiday is
meant primarily to celebrate Finland’s independence from the Russian Empire in 1917. Independence Day begins with the raising of the flag on the
Great Square in Helsinki. After attending this ceremony, the president and other prominent members of society worship together in Helsinki’s
Lutheran Church. The delegation then visits World
War II monuments. Many Finnish villages stage
their own military parades. When evening falls,
students in Helsinki take part in a traditional
candlelight parade. Many civilians light a blue and
a white candle in their window. The president hosts
a traditional banquet to which some 2,000 guests
are invited. |
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Greece
Main Public Holidays
25 Mar.(1821) Independence Day (day off)
28 Oct. (1940) Ohi Day (day off)
Other Commemoration Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation of
Auschwitz (working day)
he Greeks commemorate
OhiI Day (the Anniversary
of the ‘No’) on 28 October. This
‘No’ refers to the Greek political
resistance to the Italians that
led to Greece’s involvement in
World War II. On 28 October 1940, the Italian ambassador in Athens delivered the Greek government
an ultimatum from Mussolini: guarantee Axis troops
free passage and allow occupation of strategic loca-
Greek students
celebrating Ohi Day
with a parade.
Athens, Greece,
28 October 2012.
(© HH/Demotix)
Anniversary of the ‘No’ | Although 28 October 1940
actually marked the beginning of Greece’s involvement in World War II, the Greeks see Ohi Day as a
celebration of victory over fascism. Ohi Day is recognized in the constitution as an official public holiday. It is a combined commemoration, celebration
and tribute to the armed forces. The Greeks fly the
national flag and there is a military parade. They
pay their respects to the victims of the war: military
casualties, victims of persecution, civilians and victims in other countries. The head of state lays a
wreath in their honor. The national commemoration in Athens is organized by various state institutions in cooperation with survivors’ organizations
and relatives of victims. Schools have their pupils
participate in the parade. |
19
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
T
tions, or face war. When General Metaxas refused,
Italian troops invaded Greece from Albania. From
as early as 1942, Greeks all over the world started
commemorating Ohi Day.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 20
France
T
he French commemorate both World Wars and
their respective victims every year. On Remembrance Day in November, they commemorate the
end of World War I; on 8 May they commemorate
the victims of World War II.
20
A FTER TH E WAR
Monuments | The French began commemorating
those who fell in the First World War two years
after the armistice. In 1920, the first commemorative meetings were held at war memorials that had
been erected for the dead all over France. To this
day, a commemorative event is staged on or around
11 November. Wreaths are laid, a moment of silence
is observed and the national anthem is played. This
date is dedicated exclusively to the victims of World
War I.
Marseillaise | The French commemoration of World
War II, on 8 May, has a similarly singular focus.
Since the first commemoration took place in 1953,
this day has been reserved to honor the victims of
Main Public Holiday
14 July (1789) Quatorze Juillet, or Bastille Day,
marking the storming of the Bastille (day off)
Commemoration Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day,
anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz
(working day)
8 May (1945) National commemoration of World
War II (non-working day for civil servants,
banks and schools)
11 Nov. (1918) Commemoration of the Armistice
that ended World War I (on 11 Nov. or the
Sunday closest to it).
Laying of wreaths at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier,
Paris, France, on Armistice Day, 11 November 2012.
(© AP/Michel Spingler)
World War II only, with some emphasis on the soldiers who fought for France. In contrast to several
other European countries, there has been no clamor
in France to include the fallen from the former enemy armies (German, Austrian, Italian and Japanese soldiers). The French commemorations make
hardly any references to present-day conflicts or future concerns. The national commemorative event
is organized by the French defense ministry. There
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 21
Ireland
Armistice Day, Champs Élysées, Paris,
11 November 2010. (© AP/Bob Edme)
is a laying of wreaths followed by a moment of silence and the sounding of the Marseillaise, with
the president and state representatives in attendance along with war veterans, survivors, relatives
of victims and representatives of war heritage institutions. Since 1953, a commemorative torch is
lit to symbolize the ‘eternal flame’ of all who lost
their lives during the war. Regional and local events
are organized nationwide, often at war monuments
that originally listed only the fallen from World War
I and were later expanded to include the names of
the dead from World War II. Municipal councils
normally organize these commemorative events
and they continue to enjoy strong attendance.
Quatorze Juillet | France does not celebrate its freedom in connection with either World War. Its public
holiday on 14 July refers to the storming of the
Bastille on 14 July 1789 and the celebration of the
very brief constitutional monarchy that followed
the year after. These days it is the French armed
forces that are honored in particular on 14 July.
However, it is not a special veterans day as observed
in some other European countries. |
I
reland did not formally exist during World War I,
as it was part of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Ireland at that time. It was also one of
the few countries in the world that remained truly
neutral during World War II. Ireland does commemorate war and its victims, however.
Military Violence in a Wider Sense | Ireland commemorates the tens of thousands of Irishmen who
served in the British Army and fought the Germans
in World War I as well as those who fell in the Irish
uprising against British rule. All Irish victims of
military violence are commemorated annually on
11 July or the Sunday closest to it. It was on this
date in 1921 that Irish independence was granted
on paper. All victims of war are remembered on
that day, including those who died during more recent conflicts and in UN peacekeeping operations.
The annual commemoration ceremony takes place
at the Royal Hospital Kilmainham in Dublin with
the president, prime minister, government officials
and representatives from Northern Ireland in attendance.
Ireland also recognizes Holocaust Memorial Day on
27 January. Since 2003, the Holocaust Education
Trust Ireland has been co-organizing a commemorative event with the Irish Department for Justice
and Equality and Dublin City Council. It is attended
by some 700 people every year. About 100 school-
21
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Main Public Holidays
17 Mar. Saint Patrick’s Day, in honor of
Saint Patrick, patron saint of
Ireland (day off)
11 July (1921) Independence Day (on
11 July or the Sunday closest to it)
Other Commemoration Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial
Day, anniversary of the liberation
of Auschwitz (working day)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 22
National Day of Commemoration, Royal Hospital Kilmainham, Dublin, 12 July 2013. (© Irish Defence Force)
children are invited to attend as well. Twelve of
them read from the Irish Scroll of names. Other
children read excerpts from eyewitness accounts.
Remembrance Sunday | Although Ireland does not
have an official remembrance day for World War I,
some meetings are held midway through November around Remembrance Sunday, for example in
Dublin’s Saint Patrick’s Cathedral and in Belfast.
Government representatives sometimes attend
these. These ceremonies are organized by the Royal
British Legion and relatives of soldiers who died
during the Great War. Irish soldiers who fought in
World War I are also remembered on the Island of
Ireland Peace Park in Mesen, Belgium. This memorial was opened on 11 November 1998 in a ceremony attended by then Irish president Mary
McAleese, Queen Elizabeth II of England and King
Albert II of Belgium. |
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 23
Iceland
I
Independence Day
celebrations in
Hafnarfjordur near
Reykjavik,
17 June 2009.
(© HH/Corbis)
National Holiday
17 June (1944) Independence Day
(day off)
for extending the 1918 agreement were to take
place in 1943, but were cancelled because of the
war. Instead, Danish King Cristian X sent a letter
to Iceland on 17 June 1944 congratulating the population: their island had become an independent
republic. This fact is celebrated in Iceland on Independence Day. This national public holiday celebrates
independence and Iceland’s natural beauty with parades, Icelandic equestrian shows and concerts. |
23
Commemoration and Celebration
n 1918, shortly after World War I, Iceland obtained
the status of ‘Union with the Danish Crown’,
meaning it became a separate state under the
Danish crown. With this increase in sovereignty,
the Danish minster of Icelandic affairs became
Prime Minister of the Union and direct Danish influence on Icelandic state policy was limited to foreign affairs and territorial laws. All agreements to
this effect were entered into for a 25-year period
that was to end in 1943. Obviously, World War II
disrupted these agreements. To Iceland this marked
the next step towards its existence as an independent
island state. At the start of World War II, the
Germans occupied the island. However the occupation did not last long and in 1941 Allied forces
took over control: initially the Brits and then the
Americans. Danish-Icelandic talks on conditions
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 24
Italy, San Marino
& Vatican City
I
24
A FTER TH E WAR
taly commemorates and celebrates the end of
fascism and the liberation of the cities of Milan
and Turin on 25 April. On that date in 1945, the
Partisans celebrated in the streets. They had not
waited for the Allied forces, but had liberated their
country from the Germans and the national fascist
regime on their own. Today, 25 April is Liberation
Day, a public holiday devoted to remembrance and
celebration, but with an emphasis on the former.
The whole country remembers the victims of the
fascist regime and the German occupation of northern Italy. There are ceremonies everywhere to commemorate those who died in World War II. The
central message of the speeches and readings on
this day is ‘never again’. The media help convey
this message. The National Monument to Victor
Emmanuel II in Rome is where the Italian president,
the speaker of the Chamber of Deputies and the
president of the Senate, government officials and
representatives of the armed forces gather to remember the victims. The president lays a wreath.
Laying of wreaths at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier,
Piazza Venezia, Rome, 25 April 2013.
(© AP/Enrico Oliverio – Martijn Luns, photo on right)
National Celebrations and Remembrance
Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day,
anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz
(working day)
25 Apr. (1945) Liberation Day (day off)
2 June (1946) Day of the Republic (day off)
Traditionally, the president was joined by the prime
minister at this ceremony, but Berlusconi broke
with this tradition. He apparently did so because he
was leading a coalition with the National Alliance,
whose ranks include many former fascists.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 25
April 25 is a particularly joyous occasion among
supporters of left-wing political parties. Despite
this, it is important to stress that Liberation Day is
a national event paid for by the state.
Small Role for World War I | Italy also holds a few
small ceremonies to commemorate World War I.
Initially, Italy tried to stay neutral in that war, but
domestic nationalists and British promises led the
government to change course and in 1915 declare
war on Austria and later Hungary as well. On
4 November 1918, Austro-Hungary surrendered to
Italy, but the Italians had suffered major losses and
were confronted with an economic crisis and a weak
government, all of which helped Mussolini rise to
power. Under his regime, World War I commemorations took on fascist overtones intended to honor
Mussolini’s state. This is why the tradition has lost
significance since World War II.
Festa della Repubblica | Republic Day, Italy’s national day, is celebrated on 2 June. This is when the
Italians commemorate the results of the 2 June 1946
referendum in which the nation voted, by a slim
majority, to live in a republic rather than a kingdom.
Every 2nd of June, the Via dei Fori Imperiali in Rome
is the scene of a military parade in honor of the republic, attended by the head of state and high-ranking officials. Afterwards, the country celebrates with
music and festivities in the streets.
The city-states of San Marino and Vatican City, which
managed to steer clear of both World Wars, observe
mainly Christian holidays. |
E
very year around 10 October, the Luxembourg
population commemorates their country’s resistance to a census ordered by the German occupation
army. On that date in 1941, German Gauleiter Gustav
Simon ordered a Personenstandsaufnahme intended
to gather personal records on all inhabitants. His
survey contained questions on nationality, mother
tongue and ethnicity. The occupiers probably hoped
for a pro-German outcome; the questions were intended to evoke a ‘German’ response. Encouraged
by a call to action from resistance groups, which
was distributed by clandestine pamphlets, the majority of the Luxembourg population answered ‘Luxembourg’ rather than ‘German’, which prompted
Simon to declare the outcome null and void. This
was seen as a first victory over the occupiers.
Solidarity and Courage | Although Luxembourg’s
national memorial day is officially intended to commemorate all World War II victims, the focus is on
commemorating the solidarity of the Luxembourg
population and the courage of the resistance and
Main Public Holidays
8 May (1945) Victory Day
23 June National Holiday in
honor of the Grand
Duke’s birthday.
Other Commemoration Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day,
anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz
(working day)
31 Jan. (1945) Commemoration of 91 Luxembourg
victims of the Polish Wehrmacht detention
camp of Slonsk
Early July Commemoration of the imprisonment
of Jews in Cinqfontaines
10 Oct. (1941) National Remembrance Day
(on 10 Oct. or the Sunday closest to it)
25
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
The day is organized by national and local government
in collaboration with ANPI, the Partisan movement.
All public buildings, as well as shops, restaurants,
cafes and public transport, are closed on 25 April.
Everyone has the day off. Many Italians make use
of this day to enjoy the first good weather of the
year and pack a picnic lunch to eat somewhere in
the countryside.
Luxembourg
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26
A FTER TH E WAR
many which went into force
on May 9 at one minute past
midnight. Every year on 8 May,
the Association of Veterans of
the 1939-1945 War, UN Troops
and Soldiers of the Luxembourg Peace (AACSPL) organizes a small ceremony at the
foot of the GelleFra memorial
on Constitution Square in Luxembourg City. At this commemoration, no links are
drawn to more contemporary
themes. The Director of the
Centre de Documentation et
de Recherche sur l’Enrolement
Laying of a wreath at the Place de la Constitution in Luxembourg City, 8 May 2013.
Forcé (CDSEF; Research and
(© US Embassy Luxembourg)
Documentation Center on
Forced Recruitment) characterforced laborers. The grand Notre Dame cathedral
ized the national remembrance as ‘static’ and said
in Luxembourg City hosts a solemn ceremony with
there is little interest among the population in shiftreligious overtones. It is attended by ordinary citiing the focus to the wider theme of freedom.
zens, invited teenagers, the Grand Duke, government officials, military authorities and representaResistance | January 27, 10 October and 8 May are
tives of the resistance movement. German embassy
not the only commemoration days in Luxembourg.
staff are also invited annually.
Every year, the CDSEF and the Federation of Victims of Nazism (FVNEF) organize a commemoraIn addition to the church ceremony, there are other
tion ceremony to honor the 91 young Luxembourg
observances at the National Resistance Monument,
men who were killed in a Wehrmacht detention
the National Solidarity Monument and the memocamp in Slonsk, Poland in the night of 31 January
rials in Luxembourg-Hollerich. The government is
1945. In early July, the Auschwitz Committee orresponsible for organizing the national commemganizes an annual remembrance ceremony at the
oration events and is helped by the patriotic moveold abbey in Cinquefontaines, where old and infirm
ment. Every year a government declaration is read
Jews were imprisoned for deportation during the
aloud during the ceremony.
occupation. In the city of Wiltz, the city council,
the steering group for Resistance Remembrance
Victory Day | On 27 January, Holocaust Memorial
(SRDC) and the Luxembourg organization for prisDay, the persecution of the Jews is commemorated
oners and deportees (DPL) organize a commemoin schools with an educational program organized
ration ceremony on August 31 in honor of those
by the Ministry of Education and various NGOs.
who refused to cooperate with the occupying forces.
The end of World War II is celebrated on 8 May, the
This event refers to the great national strike of 31
day Luxembourg was liberated. In choosing to celeAugust 1942, when the Germans ordered the forced
brate this day, Luxembourg joined the VE-Day (Vicconscription of both boys and girls into their army.
tory in Europe Day) tradition, which refers to the
From then on, the resistance in Luxembourg
revelry enjoyed by Allied forces on 8 May 1945,
steadily grew and many Luxembourg youths volahead of the unconditional surrender by Nazi Gerunteered to join the Allied forces. |
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 27
Malta
L
ike many other Commonwealth countries, Malta
observes Remembrance Day to commemorate
the victims of both World War I and II. Remembrance
Day in Malta is marked on the second Sunday in
November and it focuses mostly on mourning and
grieving the victims. Local councils, churches and
small NGOs all over Malta receive financial support
from the government to organize commemorations.
In the capital of Valletta, the president lays a wreath
at the national war memorial. Afterwards, the archbishop says mass in Malta’s great cathedral. All
heads of diplomatic missions are invited to attend
both parts of the program. The event also draws
many civilians. After mass, a military parade is
held in the city. These events are attended by many
Maltese from all walks of life.
War veterans during the Remembrance Day ceremony,
Malta, 10 November 2013. (© HH/Demotix)
Victory Day | On 8 September Malta celebrates another public holiday. This ‘Victory Day’ marks
Malta’s independence and refers to various moments in history when the island state gained or regained independence. In chronological order, those
moments are the end of the Turkish siege in 1565,
Main Public Holidays (days off )
31 Mar. (1979) Freedom Day
8 Sept. (1945) Victory Day
13 Dec. (1974) Republic Day
Commemoration Days
7 June (1919) Sette Giugno, in remembrance of
the Maltese victims of British gunfire
2nd Sunday in Nov. (1918) Remembrance Day
the capitulation of the French occupation troops in
1798 and Italy’s capitulation on 3 September 1943
which was publicly proclaimed five days later, on 8
September. Victory Day begins in the morning with
a state ceremony including a military parade. In the
afternoon, people party in the streets and watch a
popular regatta in the main harbor. The day ends
with a fireworks display in the harbor and processions in many towns and villages. These processions mark the Roman Catholic day of Maria Bambina (Our Lady as a Child), which coincides with
Victory Day. September 8 is festive in tone and not
focused on its historic significance.
Independence from British rule is celebrated on 31
March. On this date in 1979, Malta’s defense treaty
with Great Britain ended and the last British troops
withdrew. Freedom Day is marked with music and
boat races in the main harbor. |
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Norway
28
A FTER TH E WAR
Main Public Holidays
8 May (1945) Liberation Day, renamed Veterans
Day in 2011 (working day)
17 May (1814) Constitution Day (day off)
Commemoration Day
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust
Memorial Day,
anniversary of the
liberation of
Auschwitz (working
day)
tion, was posthumously awarded to a soldier killed
in Afghanistan. It was the first time the decoration
was awarded in connection with an event other
than World War II. The new Veterans Day is
marked not only by the laying of wreaths, but also
by speeches, special church services and a military
parade in Oslo. Research has shown that the Norwegian population’s support for the armed forces
is growing. This is due in particular to the contribution the Norwegian armed forces have made in
Libya. The Norwegians are proud of this mission.
This may also explain their enthusiasm about the
change in focus of 8 May.
L
ike other Scandinavian countries, Norway remained
neutral during World War I. In the Second
World War, the Norwegians attempted to maintain
their neutrality, but when the Allies in April 1940
announced they would start mining German shipping lanes along Norway’s coast, the Germans immediately invaded the country. Norway remained
occupied by the Nazis until its liberation on 8 May
1945. Since then, 8 May has been celebrated as
Liberation Day, a flag-flying day to commemorate
the end of the war. The day includes a traditional
wreath-laying ceremony attended by international
guests at the Akershus fort in Oslo. In addition,
medals are awarded.
Veterans Day | In 2011, the government decided to
shift the day’s focus onto the military and to rename
the occasion Veterans Day. Since then, what was
once a remembrance of World War II has been
transformed into a tribute to all soldiers that have
served Norway since World War II. “We are gathered here to show our deepest respect to the Norwegian men and women who have worn Norwegian defense uniforms,” as NATO Secretary
General Anders Fogh Rasmussen said at the May
2013 commemoration. That was also the year when
the War Cross, Norway’s highest military decora-
Schoolchildren’s parade on Grunnlovsdag in Oslo,
17 May 2013. (© AP/Robert B. Fishman)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:50 Pagina 29
Grunnlovsdag | Norway’s national holiday, or
Grunnlovsdag, is celebrated on May 17. This day
marks the day in 1814 when the country got its constitution. It is a folkloristic event; Norwegians dress
up in traditional costumes and wave flags while
parading from castles to other historic sites.
remembered in schools and at small commemorative events. During World War II, a third of Norway’s Jewish population was murdered in the death
camps. Deportations were carried out by the Norwegian police. Prime minister Jens Stoltenberg
apologized for this dark chapter in Norway’s history
in January 2012. |
Dark Chapter | Since 2005, Norway has also been
commemorating Holocaust Memorial Day on
27 January, when the victims of the Holocaust are
T
he origins of Austria’s national remembrance
ceremony lie in the former concentration camp
Mauthausen, which was liberated on 5 May 1945.
This is where the victims of World War II are
remembered on 5 May or the following Sunday.
The tradition has been observed since the end of
the war.
In 1998, Austrian parliament began holding its own
yearly commemoration of the victims, which is
attended by the head of state, government officials,
survivors and relatives of victims. The focus is on
all victims of the Nazis. With this expansion, MPs
and the survivors and war victims’ relatives they
cooperated with have transformed the commemoration into a national event.
March of the Survivors | The Mauthausen commemoration begins with a wreath-laying ceremony
followed by the sounding of the national anthem
and a survivors’ march to the camp. At both locations there are speeches by survivors and government officials and cultural contributions by artists
and teenage schoolchildren. Although the ceremony
is about remembering the victims of World War II,
most of the speeches address issues such as responsibility and the struggle against racism and antiSemitism. Every year, Austria invites foreign visitors
including ambassadors from other European countries, the US and Israel.
National Commemorations and Holidays
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day,
anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz
(working day )
5 May (1945) National Commemoration of the
Liberation of Mauthausen (5 May or the
following Sunday)
26 Oct. (1955) Nationalfeiertag, celebration of
Austria’s Declaration of Neutrality (day off)
Other local and regional commemorations include events
held in the municipalities
where the November 1938
pogroms occurred. These
commemorations are organized by private organizations
and local and regional government. As of yet, there is no debate in Austria
about whether such commemorations should continue.
Apart from the national commemoration on 5 May,
Austria also observes Holocaust Memorial Day on
27 January. Locally, various municipalities also commemorate Kristallnacht.
Celebrating Neutrality | Austria celebrates Nationalfeiertag on 26 October, the date in 1955 when parliament amended the constitution to declare Austria
permanently neutral. This was also the day when
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Austria
29
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30
A FTER TH E WAR
Nationalfeiertag on Wiener Heldenplatz, Vienna, 26 October 2010. (© Bundesheer/Gerhard Simader)
the last Allied soldiers left the country. In 1965,
this day was turned into a public holiday. Since
1995, every tenth anniversary also marks the army’s
birthday with a parade on the Ringstrasse in Vienna,
where the army shows off its weapons, helicopters
and tanks. Employees have a day off on 26 October
and admission to Vienna’s museums and all other
federal state museums is free. Many sports events
are organized on this day as well. |
Portugal, Spain & Andorra
Commemoration Days
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial
Day (working day )
12 Oct. (1987) Dia de la Hispanidad, in
honor of Columbus’s discovery
of America
N
one of the three Iberian countries has a strong
tradition of commemorating World War I or II.
Portugal, Spain and Andorra were involved only in
World War I. During World War II, Portugal under
Salazar was mainly a popular destination for Allied
and German spies. Franco’s Spain was officially
neutral. Yet, neither dictator was hostile toward
Nazi Germany.
During the war, Portugal supplied raw materials for
the German war industry and flew its flag at half
staff after Hitler’s suicide. Salazar justified this as
standard protocol when a head of state died.
In 1937, Franco had let Hitler’s Luftwaffe bomb Guernica, killing over 1,600 people and completely destroying the Basque village. This is why the Spanish
Civil War is sometimes called a dress rehearsal for
World War II. After Franco seized power in Spanish
Morocco in 1936, Hitler’s cargo planes helped him
cross to Spain.
Much to Hitler’s chagrin, Franco officially stayed neutral during World War II; his priority was Spain’s
recovery from the Civil War. However, Franco’s
stance was aloof rather than neutral.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:51 Pagina 31
Roughly the same is true of Spain. Only recently the
country removed the last street and city signs referring to Franco’s fascist regime. Local and provincial
governments still argue about who has to foot the
bill for opening recently discovered mass graves.
The first initiatives to open a dialogue about the
past began just a few years ago.
The victims of the Holocaust are remembered, however. Portugal’s parliament remembers them on
Holocaust Memorial Day, 27 January, with a subdued
ceremony devoid of flag flying. In Spain, Jewish
organizations hold small-scale commemorations
on that day, and schools organize educational programs.
31
Principality | The third Iberian nation, the principality of Andorra, was left largely untouched by the
wars of the last century. In World War I, this small,
geographically isolated state joined the entente
(France, Britain and Russia), but saw little military
action. It stayed neutral in both the Spanish Civil
War and World War II. This is why Andorra has no
commemorative culture. It neither mourns nor celebrates these events. Andorra does celebrate an annual national holiday on 14 March, the date in 1993
when the country got its constitution. Flags are
flown, cultural events are staged, and there is a fireworks show. |
Military parade for King Juan
Carlos in Madrid, on Spain’s
National Day, 12 October 2011.
(© HH-Corbis)
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Silence | Portugal and Spain’s dictatorships continued
until 1974 and 1975, respectively. Near his death,
Franco appointed Juan Carlos as king and his successor as head of state. When the dictator died on
20 November 1975, Spain’s political structure
remained standing thanks to this orchestrated
transition. Politically, it was a smooth and uneventful process. Today, both Spain and Portugal tend to
stay silent about their dictatorial pasts. Neither
country has reached a consensus on how to interpret this painful period in history or who and what
should be remembered. Neither has a national
remembrance day to mark its own civil war or other
conflicts such as the bloody independence struggles
in Portugal’s former colonies of Angola and Mozambique. In Portugal, many recent publications take
a critical view of this period and newspapers regularly devote space to the quest for truth, justice and
reconciliation. So far, however, the wounds appear
too fresh for the nation to commemorate the victims
of military violence or the independence struggle.
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Turkey
I
n World War I, the Ottoman Empire fought alongside the Central Powers led by Germany. Turkey’s
aim was primarily to wrest control of the Caucasus
and the Crimea from Russia. By the end of World
War I, however, the Ottoman Empire was in ruins;
this led to the formation of the Republic of Turkey.
32
A FTER TH E WAR
Martyrs | In Turkey, most commemorations are dedicated to the ‘martyrs’ who gave their lives in the
struggle for the nation, in other words the soldiers
and civilians who fought under Mustafa Kemal
Atatürk during World War I. On 18 March, the Turks
observe Çanakkale Martyrs Day, a reference to the
day in 1915 when Atatürk led the battle of Gallipoli
(Gelibolu peninsula) and the Dardanelles strait
Main Public Holidays
23 Apr. (1920) Children’s Day, proclaimed by Atatürk (day off)
19 May (1938) National Youth and Sports Day (day off)
30 Aug. (1922) Victory Day, anniversary of the victory over the
Greeks (day off)
29 Oct. (1923) Day of the Constitution, anniversary of the
foundation of the Turkish Republic (day off for civil
servants)
Commemoration Days (working days)
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day, anniversary of the
liberation of Auschwitz (working day )
18 Mar. (1915) Çanakkale Martyrs Day, commemoration of
the World War I Battle of Gallipoli (at Çanakkale Bogazi
and Gelibolu)
19 Mar. Commemoration of the martyrs who gave their lives
for Turkey
25 Apr. (1915) Anzac Day, in memory of
the Australians and New
Zealanders who served and died
in the Battle of Gallipoli
10 Nov. (1983) Anniversary of the death
of Atatürk
(Çanakkale Bogazi in Turkish). On 19 March, the
Turks commemorate the Çanakkale martyrs who
gave their lives for their country.
Atatürk | April 25 is Anzac Day. This is the national
holiday in remembrance of the Australians and
New Zealanders who served and died at Gallipoli
on 25 April 1915. This day is marked by a commemorative event organized by the Turkish foreign
ministry in collaboration with military organizations and groups from the province of Çanakkale.
The ceremony is attended by the president of the
republic, the prime minister, cabinet ministers and
members of parliament, local council representatives and military personnel, teachers, students and
other Turkish civilians. In addition, foreign representatives, particularly from Australia and New
Zealand, are invited. The day features a wreathlaying ceremony, a military parade, the observance
of a moment of silence and the sounding of
Turkey’s national anthem. Over the years, official
and public interest in this commemoration has
remained steady. October 29 is Turkey’s Cumhuriyet
Bayramı, or Constitution Day, marking the date on
which the republic was established in 1923.
Turkey pays tribute to the armed forces on 30 August,
the date in 1922 when Atatürk won the Battle of
Dumlupınar and clinched victory in the Turkish
War of Independence. In short, commemorations
and celebrations in Turkey are focused to a great
extent on the exploits of Atatürk during and after
World War I. World War II made far less impact,
so few parallels can be drawn between the Turkish
and Dutch commemoration of loss and celebration
of freedom.
The Armenian Issue | And then there is
the ‘Armenian question’. Although 98 years
have passed since the Armenian mass murder in World War I, it is still a very sensitive
and controversial topic in Turkey. Even
though many countries acknowledged
years ago that it was a genocide, Turkish
commemorative culture has remained
silent on this score. However, this might
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:51 Pagina 33
33
be changing. In 2013, Turkish poet Faik Ali, who
prevented the death of 11,000 Armenians in 1915,
was remembered for the first time in a small ceremony. On the anniversary of his death, 24 April, a
small gathering of Armenians and Turks paid trib-
ute to Ali at his tomb. Those who organized this
event, most of whom are the descendants of Armenian victims, intend to turn this into an annual
commemoration. |
United Kingdom
Take up our quarrel with the foe:
To you from failing hands we throw
The torch; be yours to hold it high.
If ye break faith with us who die
We shall not sleep, though poppies grow
In Flanders Fields.
T
his is the third stanza of “In Flanders Field”, the
most quoted poem from World War I. It is an apt
reflection of what is symbolized on Remembrance
Day, the UK’s national commemoration day. Held
on or around 11 November, this day is both a tribute
to the victims and a call to keep this memory alive
and to keep ‘fighting the enemy’.
Wearing a Poppy | ”In Flanders Field”, penned by
Canadian army doctor John McCrae, is responsible
for the emergence of the poppy as a key symbol of
the war on Remembrance Day. Poppies grow well
in recently disturbed soil and even better when
every other plant in its surroundings has died,
Main Commemorations
and Celebrations
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust
Memorial Day,
anniversary of the
liberation of
Auschwitz (working
day)
3rd Sat. in June Queen’s Birthday
11 Nov. (1918) Remembrance Day, in memory of
both World Wars (on 11 Nov. or the Sunday
closest to it)
which was often the case in Flanders where soldiers
had to be buried almost every day. At the same
time, poppies are a source of opiates like morphine,
which was used as a painkiller during the war. And
finally, poppies’ bright red color refers to the bloodshed of the Great War.
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Anzac Day on Gallipoli peninsula, Turkey, 24 April 2006. (© HH/Gamma Presse Images)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:51 Pagina 34
Remembrance Day | Remembrance Day is marked
by commemorative ceremonies at war memorials
all over the kingdom. The best known event is the
national commemoration at London’s Cenotaph,
which is attended by the British monarch, government officials and prominent citizens. Remembrance Day has a decidedly military emphasis. The
ceremony starts at 11 minutes past 11, the time at
which the hostilities of World War I ceased on 11
November 1918. Although the Treaty of Versailles
was not signed until June 1919, 11 November has
remained the remembrance date in all Commonwealth nations. The ceremony consists of a sounding of The Last Post, a two-minute silence and a laying of wreaths at the war memorial in remembrance
of fallen soldiers. Then The Rouse is sounded, a
trumpet or bugle call to signal soldiers that it is
time to rise. At the Cenotaph in London, this ceremony is followed by a parade displaying every
branch of the military. Afterwards, most units hold
their annual reunion.
34
A FTER TH E WAR
Wreaths of poppies at the Cenotaph war memorial, Whitehall, London,
on Remembrance Day, 13 November 2005. (© Reuters/Paul Hackett)
In the UK, Remembrance Day is also referred to as
Poppy Day; many Brits wear a poppy in the weeks
leading up to 11 November. Poppy pins are sold in
stores and at public institutions. Proceeds go to
the British Legion, the British veterans association.
Wearing a poppy is therefore a visible show of support for the British armed forces. Some pacifists
are ambivalent about this symbol because of
Britain’s contributions to more recent wars, but
still want to show support to the relatives of war
casualties and keep the memory alive. To express
this feeling, they wear a white poppy.
Remembrance Day commemorations center on the
armed forces: the soldiers in the British Army who
died in World Wars I and II and all subsequent
armed conflicts. Although Great Britain still held
many overseas territories at the time of both World
Wars, hardly any mention is made of victims from
the former colonies. This is striking given the fact
that many of their descendants now live in the UK
and that many, as colonial subjects, fought for Great
Britain in the World Wars. The same is true of victims on the Eastern Front in World War II, who
fought for the same objectives as the British soldiers, but whose deaths go unrecognized.
Even victims of the Holocaust are not specifically
honored in Britain’s commemorative culture, although this is slowly changing. On 27 January,
Holocaust Memorial Day, small-scale commemorations and educational programs at schools are
organized to remember these victims. |
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Sweden
S
weden only commemorates the end of the Holocaust. In 2001, the Swedish government decided
on 27 January as the date for an annual Holocaust
Memorial Day. The Living History Forum, a body
in the Swedish Ministry of Culture, has the duty of
organizing this day and ensuring that the memory
of the Holocaust is kept alive.
International Holocaust
Remembrance Day at Raoul
Wallenberg square in
Stockholm, 27 January 2013.
(© AP Photo/Scanpix Sweden,
Leif R Jansson)
35
Holocaust Memorial Day is Sweden’s only commemorative day. There is, however, some debate on
whether 26 August ought to become a day for remembering the victims of communism all over the
world. Since 1916, Flag Day, Sweden’s national celebration, has been observed on 6 June. The whole
country flies flags and the national anthem is played
and sung. Since 2005, Swedish employees have
been given the day off on Flag Day. However, they
did have to trade in their day off on Whit Monday
for that. |
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
A commemoration is held annually on 27 January in
Stockholm. It is always attended by a Swedish government representative and foreign ambassadors
are also invited. Throughout the country, schools
and NGOs organize commemorative events such
as cultural meetings, film screenings, lectures, the
lighting of candles and photo exhibitions, all of
which focus on Holocaust victims. With the Jewish
victims in mind, a link is drawn to the present; the
recurring message is ‘never again’. Every year, the
Forum also selects a topic related to current human
rights violations. In 2014, for instance, there was a
special focus on the dire living conditions of the
Roma in Europe.
National Celebration
6 June (1523) Flag Day (since 1916;
day off since 2005)
Remembrance Day (working day)
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day
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Switzerland & Liechtenstein
S
witzerland remained neutral during both World
Wars and observes no specific remembrance
days. The country has a single national holiday. All
other celebrations are decided on and organized
by individual cantons. On 1 August, all of Switzerland
celebrates Feiertag. Everyone has the day off. The
population celebrates the fact that on 1 August
1291 the Swiss Federation was founded.
Public Holidays (days off)
1 Aug. (1291) Feiertag (Switzerland)
15 Aug. (1719) Independence Day (Liechtenstein)
Commemorations (working day)
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day
36
A FTER TH E WAR
The Principality of Liechtenstein observes neither
war commemorations nor liberation celebrations.
Its only national celebration is on 15 August. On
this date in 1719, the country was granted its status
as an independent principality.
Both Switzerland and Liechtenstein recognize Holocaust Memorial Day, which is when they remember
the victims of the Holocaust and Jewish victims in
particular. |
Holocaust commemoration at the European headquarters of the United Nations in Geneva, 2009.
(© Reuters/Valentin Flauraud)
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Israel
Our research into commemorative rituals in Europe
includes Israel because many Israelis are first or second
generation immigrants from Europe.
T
Yom HaShoah | Israel’s commemorative culture
focuses on all victims of the Shoah worldwide. Yom
HaShoah is observed as the national remembrance
day, commemorating both destruction and heroism.
In 1953, Israel decided to observe Yom HaShoah
on 19 April, the date of the Warsaw ghetto uprising.
This date was later changed, when the country abandoned the Gregorian calendar in favor of the Jewish
calendar. Ever since, Yom HaShoah has been observed on 27 Nisan.
Laying of wreaths
during the annual
Yom HaShoah
ceremony at Yad
Vashem memorial,
Jerusalem,
8 April 2013.
(© AP/Gali Tibbon,
Pool)
Yom HaShoah starts at sundown on 26 Nisan. The
flag is flown at half staff and Jewish Israelis say
prayers for the dead. The next day at 10 a.m., air
raid sirens are sounded for two full minutes. The
37
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
he state of Israel did not exist yet during World
Wars I and II. The Jewish state was founded
three years after the end of World War II. Its population was largely European, however, and were
almost without exception survivors or related to
victims of the Shoah, or Holocaust.
National Holiday (working
day)
5 Iyar (Apr./May) Yom
HaAtzmaut
(Independence Day)
Commemorations
27 Jan (1945) Holocaust
Memorial Day, anniversary of the liberation
of Auschwitz (working day)
27 Nisan (Apr./May) Yom HaShoah, national
remembrance of Holocaust victims
(working day)
4 Iyar (Apr./May) Yom HaZikaron (Memorial Day),
in memory of all victims of military
operations, Israeli wars and acts of terror
against the state of Israel
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:51 Pagina 38
Israeli soldiers placing black
beribboned flags on the graves
of dead soldiers at Kiryat Shaul
military cemetery during the
annual commemoration ceremony in Tel Aviv, 14 April 2013.
(© AP/Ariel Schalit)
38
A FTER TH E WAR
entire country comes to a standstill. Traffic stops,
people stand still in the street and nearly everyone
observes two minutes of silence. The rest of the
day, government institutions and public buildings
are closed and commemorative events take place.
Throughout Israel, speeches are given, survivors
speak, names of the victims are read out loud and
candles are burned. Jewish children are present as
a symbol of the memory continuing and being
passed on. The head of state, members of the Knesset
and Shoah survivors play an important part in the
various ceremonies. One particularly important
memorial site is Yad Vashem, the Shoah museum
and memorial center in Jerusalem. Here, wreaths
are laid every year and the national anthem is
played.
Ultra-orthodox Jews in Israel remember the victims
of the Shoah on another day: Tisha B’Av. Traditionally, this day commemorates the destruction of the
first and second temples in Jerusalem, so this is
actually a religious day of remembrance.
Yom HaZikaron | Since 1963, Israel has also observed Yom HaZikaron on 4 Iyar (April/May), the day
preceding Yom HaAtzmaut. Yom HaZikaron is an
occasion to remember all victims of military operations, wars involving Israel and acts of terror
against the state of Israel. This commemoration
also starts with the sound of an air raid siren. At 8
p.m., the sirens are sounded for a full minute and
public life comes to a standstill. The next morning
at 11 a.m., the sirens sound for another minute.
Then the Israelis gather in synagogues and at cemeteries where victims lie buried to say prayers in
their memory.
Yom HaAtzmaut | The next day is Yom HaAtzmaut,
the day in 1948 when Ben Gurion declared Israel’s
independence in Tel Aviv. This day is celebrated as
both a national and Jewish holiday and its festive
atmosphere is similar to the Dutch celebrations of
freedom on 5 May. Both orthodox and reformed
Jews use this joyous occasion to jointly express
their hope for peace by singing psalms and saying
prayers. These days, the entire country engages in
outdoor festivities and children make noise to celebrate their country’s independence. Ultra-orthodox
Jews do not take part; they refuse on principle to
say prayers for the state of Israel, which they believe
should only exist after the coming of the Messiah. |
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:51 Pagina 39
On the Edges of Protocol
Otto Snoek’s Photo Essay
The Dutch National Committee for 4 and
5 May selected thirty photos from this
series and composed a photo essay documenting events where people commemorated the war or celebrated their freedom, their country’s liberation, their
independence or unity. In the regions
that Snoek visited, sometimes thousands
of miles from The Netherlands, the
phrase ‘the war’ did not always mean
World War II. In some countries, armed
conflicts from before World War II, or conflicts that erupted after 1945 were much more prominent
in national memory and commemorative culture. Nations
that were hardly involved in war and conflict tended to
emphasize celebrations such as Flag Day or the Day of
the Constitution. This wide variety is visible in the street
scenes Snoek’s camera captured.
“While many photographers would step back to take their
picture, I get up close,” says Snoek when discussing the
way he works. Snoek zooms in on individuals and crowds.
Instead of taking wide-angle panoramic shots, he captures
impressions of the public space in a more personal way.
As Frits Gierstberg, Professor of Photography and Curator
of the Nederlands Fotomuseum in Rotterdam, put it:
“Snoek prefers to be in places where lots of people gather.
He takes candid shots, fast and full frontal. No one strikes
a pose. The postures, gestures and facial expressions are
According to art critic Manon Braat of Kunstbeeld magazine,
Snoek manages amid all the rituals, flag waving and memorials, to capture exactly those moments that make viewers
uncomfortable. Snoek isolates the individual from the
masses and simultaneously captures people’s interchangeability. And Braat also sees in his photos myriad signs of
globalization: “Snoek takes pictures of immigrants in Athens selling Greek flags, or
a bunch of African students in Reykjavik
carrying the Icelandic flag. Ethnic background, religion, language and skin color
bear little relation to national identity, to
patriotic feeling or to the gatherings that
Snoek recorded.”
Art historian Gierstberg says Snoek’s work
can be compared to that of photographers
like Weegee, Joel Meyerowitz, Garry
Winogrand, Ed van der Elsken and Martin
Parr. However, he adds that Snoek is distinctive thanks to
his more radical ethics and his thematic focus on the
relationship between democracy and the society of the
spectacle. This relationship is visible in Snoek’s images
of war commemorations, liberation festivities and other
national celebrations in Europe. In this photo essay, the
photographer turns away from the formal ceremony where
dignitaries lay wreaths at memorials. Instead, Snoek points
his camera at the spectator and those involved on the
fringes of the official event. In this way, he documents
what happens on the edges of protocol.
Photo: Koos Breukel
39
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
When independent photographer Otto Snoek received his
European passport, he asked himself: “What is it that
unites us Europeans?” He resolved to use his new document to travel to all member states of the European Union
and to photograph expressions of nationalism in a unified
Europe. He traveled to all corners of Europe from 2005
to 2013, taking pictures of national celebrations and commemorations, marches, and even crowds at soccer
games. The result was a series of photographs he called
‘We Europe’.
recorded without any intervention by the photographer.
You won’t find any cheery compositions in his work. Often
his photos even lack a main subject. The viewer’s attention
is drawn by a wide variety of elements on the edge of the
image or off-center.”
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:51 Pagina 40
Brussels, Belgium,
21 July; National
holiday, anniversary of
the King’s oath of
allegiance to the
constitution (1831).
Sofia, Bulgaria,
3 March;
Commemoration of
Bulgaria’s liberation
from Ottoman rule
(1878).
Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:51 Pagina 41
Potsdam, Germany,
3 October; German
Unity Day (1990).
Tallinn, Estonia,
24 February;
Independence Day
(1918).
On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek
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Paris, 14 July;
Quatorze Juillet,
Bastille day (1789).
Spectators are
watching planes fly
overhead.
Tbilisi, Georgia,
26 May;
Independence Day
(1918).
Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol
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Athens, Greece,
25 March;
Independence Day
(1821).
Athens, Greece,
25 March;
Independence Day
(1821).
The military and civil
parade includes
hospital staff.
On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek
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Budapest, Hungary,
15 March; Liberation
Day, start of the war
of independence
against the Austrian
Empire (1848).
Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol
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Cork, Ireland,
17 March;
Saint Patrick’s Day, in
honor of Saint Patrick.
Reykjavik, Iceland,
17 June; Students
celebrating
Independence Day
(1944).
On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek
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Zagreb, Croatia,
25 June; Statehood
Day, anniversary of
the declaration of
independence (1991).
Riga, Latvia,
18 November;
Proclamation Day of
the Republic of Latvia
(1918).
Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol
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Vilnius, Lithuania,
11 March; Act of the
Re-Establishment of
the State of Lithuania
(1990).
Luxembourg City,
Luxembourg, 23 June;
National holiday to
celebrate the Grand
Duke’s birthday.
On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek
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Skopje, Macedonia,
8 September;
Independence Day
(1991).
Valetta, Malta,
8 September;
Victory Day
(1945).
Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol
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Kiev, Ukraine,
24 August;
Independence Day
(1991).
On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:52 Pagina 50
Oslo, Norway, 17 May;
Constitution Day
(1814).
Vienna, Austria,
26 October;
Nationalfeiertag,
celebration of
Austria’s Declaration
of Neutrality (1955).
Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:52 Pagina 51
Warsaw, Poland,
11 November;
Independence Day,
celebration of the
restoration to Polish
control of territories
ruled by Prussia,
Austria and the Soviet
Union for more than
a century (1918).
Moscow, Russia,
9 May; Victory Day
(1945).
On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:52 Pagina 52
Bucharest, Romania,
1 December;
Great Union Day,
celebration of
Transylvania’s
unification with
Romania (1918)
Otto Snoek – On the Edges of Protocol
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:52 Pagina 53
Istanbul, Turkey,
29 October;
Constitution Day,
anniversary of the
foundation of the
Turkish Republic
(1923).
On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 54
Minsk, Belarus, 3 July;
Independence Day,
celebrated since 1996
on the day the Soviet
Army liberated Minsk
(1944).
Stockholm, Sweden,
6 June;
Flag Day (1916).
The figure covered in
yellow and blue is
selling Swedish flags
and rosettes.
On the Edges of Protocol – Otto Snoek
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 55
Soviet Union
(1922-1991)
fficially, Nazi Germany’s capitulation took place
on 8 May 1945 at 11:01 p.m. Dutch time. In
Moscow, it was already 9 May at that time, which is
why the Soviet Union celebrates ‘б,ое ды ,нь’, or
Victory Day on 9 May. This has been so self-evident
for so many decades, it is hard to imagine that
Victory Day was not always such a festive occasion.
And yet, the 9 May holiday was abolished in 1947
and it remained banned until 1965. Historians
believe Stalin was afraid that the people would
claim victory or would want to pay tribute to a
heroic military leader such as Marshal Zhukov.
Stalin was not at all keen to share his status as the
Great Victor or to compromise his authority.
During Khrushchev’s reign, celebrating Victory Day
was considered too sensitive. The war victory was
closely associated with Stalin who had since been
discredited. Therefore, the 10th anniversary of the
day, in 1955, passed unmarked.
Main Public Holidays
23 Feb. (1918) Soviet Army Day (since 1922; day off)
9 May (1945) Victory Day (1946-47: day off, 1948-1964:
working day, 1965-1991: day off)
3 Sept. (1945) Day of the Soviet Union’s Victory over Japanese
Militarism (1945-47: day off; since then: working day)
7/8 Nov. (1917) Anniversary of the Great Socialist October
Revolution (days off)
5 Dec. (1936) Constitution Day (since 1977, on 7 Oct.; day off)
55
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Eastern
Europe
O
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 56
Until 1965, the Soviet Union’s main holiday was Great
October Revolution Day on 7 November. It was
intended to commemorate the establishment of the
Communist utopia. During the annual military
parade on Moscow’s Red Square, the victory of
World War II was also celebrated more or less in
passing as one of the Bolshevik regime’s prominent
accomplishments.
56
A FTER TH E WAR
Most other celebrations on what was called the Revolutionary Calendar, introduced by the Soviet leadership, were likewise full of pomp and circumstance.
In military parades and at mass demonstrations,
sloganed banners and portraits of the nation’s leaders glorified the Communist utopia and its ruling
elite.
Great Patriotic War as Justification | In the
Brezhnev era, World War II was increasingly used
as a justification for the Soviet system. After all,
Socialism had defeated National Socialism, had it
not? The Soviet Union’s anti-fascist stance was presented as the counterweight to the liberal capitalism
of the West. The atrocities of World War II – increasingly referred to as the Great Patriotic War – were
used to justify the policies of maintaining the huge
Soviet Army, supporting the Eastern Bloc, militarizing the national economy and engaging in the
nuclear arms race.
On the twentieth anniversary of the victory, the Kremlin for the first time organized a parade on Red
Square. Books were published about the war, films
were produced and new Rubles were minted depicting an East Berlin war memorial. Cities like Stalingrad, Leningrad, Sevastopol and Kiev were assigned
‘City of Heroes’ status. This policy ensured that the
whole country became involved in the festivities,
because now millions of people could feel proud to
live in a ‘City of Heroes’. The government introduced
eternal flames all over the country. In 1965, the radio
and television program A Minute of Silence was first
broadcast. From its inception to the present day,
this program has always been devoted to the heroes
who lost their lives in the struggle against Nazi Germany. Along with the program, the traditional
minute of silence was introduced.
And so, long after Stalin’s death, Victory Day became
the most popular Soviet holiday after all. It was a
day that was celebrated wholeheartedly, as it was
based on real experiences and feelings rather than
ideology or politics. Almost everyone had either
lost a relative to the war or seen one return as a
hero. Moreover, 9 May was the first festive occasion
after the long Russian winter.
The Holocaust was barely mentioned; the millions of
murdered Jews were an anonymous group among
the dizzying numbers of Soviet victims. Fascism
was portrayed as the ultimate enemy of Communism, not solely of the Jewish population.
Sovietification | Holidays were part of the Sovietification and were celebrated throughout Eastern
Europe. Yet, Victory Day only became a non-working
day in the Ukraine and Russia (in 1963 and 1965,
respectively). The collapse of the Soviet Union went
hand in hand with a ‘revolution of rituals and symbols’ and led to a reform of the public holiday calendar. |
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 57
Russia
T
he Russians celebrate Victory Day on 9 May. It
is a festive occasion, celebrated with ‘tears in our
eyes,’ as the often quoted lyrics of a famous song
say. While Russia still regards the Soviet Union as
the great victor of World War II, it is also undeniably
the country that suffered the greatest losses: 26.6
million deaths, including 8.7 million soldiers. It is
no coincidence that the Russians have dubbed
World War II the Great Patriotic War.
Parade on Moscow’s Red Square, 9 May 2006.
(© Remco Reiding)
emonies, which led to competing festivities organized
by various parties. Nationalists and Communists held rivaling parades for
veterans, while liberals organized festivities in the
parks. But in 1995, Yeltsin realized that Victory Day
could be used to encourage patriotism and shore
up support for his regime. That year, he organized
a military parade for the first time and gave it a new
message: that the Russian people had won the war
despite, rather than thanks to, Stalin. The Victory is
one of the few milestones in Russian history that
the entire population – regardless of religious, political or ethnic background – recognizes as an event
of major importance. Of the Russian population,
57
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Patriotism | In the early 1990s, various controversies
surrounding public holidays symbolized the divisions within Russia. One example was 12 June, a
new holiday meant to celebrate the Declaration of
Sovereignty. It became controversial straight away
because it coincided with the day that Yeltsin was
elected president. In 1997, Yeltsin tried to soften
public contempt for the holiday by renaming it
Russia Day. Initially, his regime had shown little
enthusiasm for Victory Day on 9 May. The state
organized neither military parades nor official cer-
Public Holidays
23 Feb. (1918) Defender of the Fatherland Day
(1992-2001: working day; since 2002: day off)
9 May (1945) Victory Day (day off)
12 June (1990) Russia Day (1992-2001: Day of the
Russian Federation’s Declaration of
Sovereignty; day off)
4 Nov. (1612) Unity Day (day off)
Selected National Commemoration Days
22 June (1941) Day of Remembrance and
Mourning, anniversary of Operation
Barbarossa, when Nazi Germany invaded
the Soviet Union (since 1996; working day)
29 June (1941) Day of Partisans and Members of
the Resistance, anniversary of their first
deployment in occupied territory (working
day)
22 Aug. (1991) National Flag Day, anniversary of
the victory over the putschists (since 1994;
working day)
7 Nov. (1917) October Revolution Day (1991-2004:
day off; since 2005: working day)
9 Dec. (1917) Day of Heroes of the Fatherland (since
2007; working day)
12 Dec. (1993) Constitution
Day (1994-2004: day
off; since 2005:
working day)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 58
95% consider 9 May important and 96% believe it
is the state’s duty to keep the memory of the Great
Patriotic War and the victory over fascism alive.
58
A FTER TH E WAR
Perhaps the Russians attach such great value to this
war victory because there is little in their recent past
to be proud of. The waves of repression under
Stalin, the failed Communist experiment, the
‘defeat’ in the Cold War and the chaos that followed
the collapse of the Soviet Union mainly evoke
feelings of embarrassment and disappointment.
Russia’s current president Vladimir Putin uses the
old war victory to bolster the Russian people’s pride
and self-esteem and to stir feelings of national
identity and unity. The Kremlin also sees the victory
over fascism as an important pillar of the
international status Russia enjoys (or ought to
enjoy, rather).
Military Parade | Russia, like The Netherlands,
observes separate days for commemoration and
celebration. On 8 May, the Russian president lays
a wreath at the eternal flame and the Tomb of the
Unknown Soldier just outside the Kremlin wall.
This ceremony is also attended by the prime
minister, the chief of staff of the presidential
executive office, the presidents of the Duma and
the Federation Council, the president of the
Constitutional Court, the heads of ministries and
agencies, representatives of political parties and
war veterans’ organizations.
All these attendees, as well as many war veterans
themselves, also witness the awe-inspiring military
parade on Red Square on 9 May, which is preceded
by a presidential address. The veterans are given
free transportation to Moscow or another destina-
Parade on Moscow’s Red Square commemorating the victory over Nazi Germany, 9 May 2013.
(© AP/RIA-Novosti, Alexei Druzhinin, Presidential Press Service)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 59
tion in the weeks leading up to 9 May. Standing
upright in a convertible, the defense minister inspects the troops who respond to his salute with a
long and loud ‘hurray’. Ambassadors and military
attachés are invited to watch the parade and on anniversaries, heads of state are invited as well. German
chancellor Angela Merkel was a guest of honor in
2012. The authorities even see to it that the weather
does not rain on their parade; if rainclouds threaten,
planes are sent up to spray chemicals that disperse
the precipitation. There are concerts all day long,
and at night the festivities conclude with a great
fireworks show. People in nearly every village in
Russia lay flowers at their local eternal flame or
war memorial. War veterans gather to retell stories
and to toast to their comrades, peace and the victory.
In 2005, even the Russian Orthodox Church, which
is normally uncompromising in matters of liturgy,
instituted 9 May as an official day of remembrance.
The patriarch decreed that all 26,000 communities
worldwide were from then on to conduct memorial
services on that day.
Russian military planes fly over the Kremlin during the
Victory parade on Moscow’s Red Square, 9 May 2013.
Focus on Veterans | Victory Day’s main focus is on
war veterans. Civilians are rarely the focus of any
remembrance, even though many more civilians
than troops died during the war. The soldiers are
divided into two broad categories: the dead and the
heroes. There is no room in collective memory for
prisoners of war who returned. They were seen as
potential traitors because they had been held
captive in the West, where they could not have
failed to notice the higher standard of living
compared to the Soviet Union. As a result, talk of
imprisonment became taboo; there was shame, but
also fear of Stalinist repression. Many still treat the
millions of forced laborers (Ostarbeiter) with
suspicion and disdain. Another consequence of the
focus on war veterans is the lack of recognition for
Jewish victims. It is significant that the Russian
Federation has not officially recognized Holocaust
Memorial Day as a public holiday despite repeated
requests from special interest groups. There are,
however, some regional commemorations.
(© AP/Misha Japaridze)
Commemoration or Celebration? | Victory Day is
gradually losing its commemorative nature and becoming a festive occasion. More and more people
prefer parades, marches, fireworks and festivities
to helping veterans or attempting to achieve world
peace (Source: Levada Center, 2013). “Apart from
statements like ‘never again’ no links to the future
are made,” says Deputy Defense Attaché LieutenantColonel Ben Rijnenberg. “The connection to the
present is mostly one of gratitude and appreciation
towards the war veterans and those who gave their
lives, all those whose great sacrifices made the present in its present form possible.”
Gratitude and appreciation were also the focus in
2005 when the orange and black Saint George ribbons were introduced in a campaign similar to the
torch campaign of the Dutch National Committee
for 4 and 5 May and the poppy as a British symbol
of the Great War.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 60
60
A FTER TH E WAR
This campaign, organized by RIA Novosti news
agency under the heading of ‘Let’s create a tradition
together’ initially only targeted Moscow, but soon
became so successful that millions of ribbons were
distributed nationwide. In 2005, 800,000 ribbons
were distributed; in 2006, 1.2 million; in 2007,
approx. 10 million; in 2013, 4 million in Moscow
alone. People wear the ribbons in a buttonhole, tie
them to their purse or fly them from a car antenna.
In 2010, President Putin’s children’s website was
expanded to include web pages about Victory Day.
Visitors to the site can listen to a special speech
from the president to young citizens; they can read
children’s wartime letters and diaries and download
the most popular war songs from that era. This
project shows some similarities to 13 in de oorlog
[13 years old in the war], a Dutch children’s TV
series accompanied by an interactive internet game.
Young People | The introduction of the Saint George
ribbons was initially part of a commemoration
project (www.9may.ru) that called on young people in particular to collect photographs, diaries
and eyewitness accounts from their relatives from
the war era, which is comparable to the Erfgoed van
de oorlog [War Heritage] program organized by the
Dutch Ministry of Welfare, Health and Culture.
These days, the Russian campaign carries the slogan
‘г пымоюЯ я жыр усе, or ‘I remember, I am proud’.
In 2008, a survey showed that a third of young adult
Russians (ages 18-24) had in the preceding year either read books about World War II, met with veterans, or visited a war museum or war memorial, while
80% of them had watched films about the war.
Other Days | Russia recognizes many other public
holidays besides Victory Day. But many are perceived as ‘artificial political constructs’. Even today,
half the population does not know the actual name
of the day that is celebrated on 12 June (Russia Day).
In 2005, the government proclaimed 4 November
the Day of People’s Unity (Unity Day for short), to
replace the annual commemoration of the October
Revolution. November 4 refers to the day in 1612
when Polish troops were chased from the Kremlin,
an event that was commemorated nationwide from
1649 until 1917. However, if the state’s aim is to
foster patriotism, the Russian people seem to have
little interest: only 17% of the population know
what the day refers to, while only 8% know it by its
correct name. To make matters worse,
every year on 4 November a massive
ultra-nationalist and neo-Nazi rally takes
place; initially this was accompanied by
swastikas and Hitler salutes, but currently
it is mainly targeted at illegal immigration.
Army Day on 23 February, in honor of the
establishment of the Soviet Army, was renamed Defender of the Fatherland Day
in 1992. In 2002, it was also turned into
a day off for employees. This holiday is
also referred to as Men’s Day and is a
counterpart to International Women’s Day
on 8 March. |
Parade on Moscow’s Red Square, 9 May 2006. (© Remco Reiding)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 61
Ukraine
A
t the end of 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union
divided up Poland. East Galicia and Volhynia became part of the Soviet Republic of Ukraine. On 22
June 1941, Hitler’s troops invaded. About seven
million Ukrainians died in World War II, including
a million Jews. In the early 1930s, millions of people
had already died during the Holodomor, the famine
caused by the forced collectivization of agriculture.
In 1991, Ukraine gained independence, but the country is still deeply divided. The majority in the rural
west and north of the country speak Ukrainian and
are pro-European. In the industrialized east and
south, most are strongly Russia-oriented and Russian-speaking. Following presidential polls in 2004,
massive street protests, called the Orange Revolution, led to new elections with a different winner:
the pro-Western Yushchenko instead of the proRussian Yanukovych.
Division | The lasting divisions in Ukraine manifest
themselves in ongoing disagreement about various
holidays. Yushchenko proclaimed the day when the
Orange Revolution began, 22 November, as Free-
Public Holidays (days off)
1 Jan. New Year’s Day, also World Peace Day (since 1968)
9 May (1945) Victory Day (until 1948; since 1963: day off)
28 June (1996) Constitution Day
24 Aug. (1991) Independence Day
Selected Other Commemoration Days (working days)
22 Jan. (1919) Day of Ukraine’s Unity and Freedom (1999-2011: Unity Day), anniversary of the unification of the Ukrainian and West Ukrainian People’s Republics
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day (since 2011)
15 Feb. (1989) Remembrance Day for Participants in Military Actions in Other
Countries, anniversary of the last Soviet troop withdrawal from Afghanistan
23 Feb. (1918) Day of the Defender of the Fatherland, anniversary of the Soviet Army’s formation
(since 1999)
29 May (1948) International UN Peace Force Day (since 2003)
22 June (1941) Day of Remembrance and Mourning ,anniversary of Operation Barbarossa, when Nazi
Germany invaded the Soviet Union (since 2001)
15 July (1992) Ukrainian UN Blue Helmets Day, anniversary or the first deployment of UN forces in the war
in Yugoslavia (since 2013)
Last Sunday in July: Navy Day (since 2012)
2 Aug. (1944) Roma Genocide Memorial Day (since 2004)
23 Aug. National Flag Day (since 2004)
28 Oct. (1944) Day of Ukraine’s Liberation from its Fascist Occupiers, anniversary of the last Nazi troop
withdrawal (since 2009),
4th Saturday in Nov.: Holomodor Remembrance Day (since 1998)
6 Dec. (1991) Day of Ukraine’s Armed Forces, anniversary of their formation (since 1993)
61
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
The greatest loss of life occurred in August and September 1941 in and around the Ukrainian capital
of Kiev. In the First Battle of Kiev, at least 100,000
Soviet soldiers were killed and over 600,000 were
captured by the enemy. On 29 and 30 September
1941, nearly 34,000 Jews were massacred in the
Babi Yar ravine. In the end, at least 100,000 people
were executed: apart from the Jews, the victims included thousands of prisoners of war, Communists,
Sinti and Roma, nationalists and hostages.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 62
On 9 May 2011, observance of
this day in the western city of
Lviv got out of hand when members of the Ukrainian nationalist Freedom Party stopped war
veterans on their way to a cemetery. They knocked flowers out
of the veterans’ hands, ripped
ribbons off their chests and
trampled the Russian consul’s
wreath. Dozens of people were
arrested.
62
A FTER TH E WAR
The Freedom Party’s leader
wants 14 October to be officially recognized as a national
Commemoration at Babi Yar, Kiev, Ukraine, 8 October 2000. (© Reuters)
public holiday. On that day in
1942, the Ukrainian Insurgent
dom Day. In 2010, his pro-Russian rival
Army (UPA) was established. Because the UPA
Yanukovych became president after all and revoked
and other nationalist organizations sought support
this holiday, integrating it with Unity Day.
from the Nazis in their struggle against the RusYanukovych also decreed that Ukraine would celesians and Poles, they are seen as collaborators by
brate Navy Day on the same day that Russia honMoscow and its allies in eastern Ukraine.
ored its own navy, much to the chagrin of the country’s pro-Western camp.
Armed Forces Day | A battle from 1918 also stirred
up strong feelings in the recent past. In 2006, a
The same divisions could be seen on Victory Day. In the
Heroes Memorial was erected on the spot of the
southern port of Sevastopol, the Ukrainian and
Battle of Kruty, a Ukrainian uprising by students
Russian fleet jointly held a grand military parade.
and soldiers against the Russian army. A year later,
Regional governments in the west of the
country refused to recognize Victory Day
and proclaimed 9 May Remembrance
Day for the victims of the Nazis and
other totalitarian regimes. This, in turn,
angered the leadership in Kiev, who
made it clear that regional governments
had no say over public holidays.
Guard of Honor at the Babi Yar
commemoration, Kiev,
27 September 2006.
(© AP/Presidential Press
Service, Mykhaylo Markiv, Pool)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 63
president Yushchenko proclaimed 29 January a
Remembrance Day in honor of this battle. That
same year, the memorial was defaced with paint
and anti-nationalist slogans. Armed Forces Day
caused a similar tug-of-war.
63
Most commemorative events in Ukraine pale by comparison to Holomodor Memorial Day. On that day,
the entire country lights candles for the millions of
victims of the famine which parliament declared a
‘genocide’ in 2006. |
Belarus
I
n his Drang nach Osten, Reichsführer-SS Heinrich
Himmler wanted to exterminate three-quarters of
the Belarus population. In the end, about twenty
percent of Belarus’s nine million citizens lost their
lives during World War II, including most of the
intellectual elite. Some 400,000 young people were
deported to Germany as forced laborers. The German
army’s scorched earth tactics reduced thousands of
villages to ashes, their inhabitants included.
To mark the defeat of the Nazis, Belarus celebrates
Victory Day with an impressive military parade in
the capital Minsk’s Victory Square. On 3 July, another parade marks Belarus’s Independence, oddly
enough, since this is the day that the Soviet Army
liberated Minsk in 1944. Defender of the Fatherland
Day, on 23 February, is another occasion for laying
wreaths and observing a moment of silence. Belarus
recognizes Holocaust Memorial Day and also commemorates the pogroms in the Minsk ghetto on 2
March. About 90 percent of the Jews in Minsk were
killed.
Public Holidays
15 Mar. (1994) Constitution Day (working day)
2 Apr. (1996) Day of the Unity of the Peoples of
Belarus and Russia, anniversary of the
Union State’s foundation (working day)
9 May (1945) Victory Day (day off)
2nd Sunday in May: National
Emblem and
National Flag Day
(working day)
3 July (1944) Independence
Day, anniversary of
the Soviet liberation
of Minsk (since 1996;
day off)
Other Commemoration Days (working days)
23 Feb. (1918) Defender of the Fatherland Day,
anniversary of the Soviet Army’s formation
22 June (1941) Remembrance Day for all victims of
the Great Patriotic War, in remembrance of
Nazi Germany’s invasion
7 Nov. (1917) October Revolution Day
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
The Day of Ukraine’s Liberation from its Fascist Occupiers, first commemorated on 28 October 2009,
has caused much less controversy. A ceremony is
held annually in Kiev, featuring a laying of wreaths
and a minute of silence. The 2013 delegation of
dignitaries was at least as impressive as the one on
Victory Day, including President Yanukovych, his
predecessors Yushchenko and Kuchma, the prime
minister and the speaker of parliament.
The president also lays a wreath on 29 September,
the first day of the Babi Yar massacre, even though
this day has not officially been recognized as a national day of mourning as far as we know. The flag
on Kiev’s city hall is flown at half staff. In 2011,
Ukraine officially recognized Holocaust Memorial
Day. Following each year’s official commemoration,
there are silent marches, exhibitions and other
events which are mainly organized by Jewish organizations and other NGOs. Roma Genocide Memorial Day was officially recognized in 2004.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 64
All these commemorations and celebrations are organized by the state. They are attended by President
Aleksandr Lukashenko, members of his staff, the
defense minister, other dignitaries, veterans, victims, representatives of youth organizations and
foreign diplomats.
Victory Day celebrations in Minsk, 9 May 2012.
(© AP/ Sergey Grits)
Freedom Day | In the early 1990s, Belarus civilians
started celebrating Freedom Day on 25 March. This
changed, however, in 1994 with the rise to power
of President Lukashenko, who is often referred to
in the West as Europe’s last dictator. Since then,
Freedom Day has been celebrated only by dissidents who try to rally mass demonstrations against
the Lukashenko regime. This is usually met with
harsh reprisals by security forces. The date of Freedom Day refers to the establishment of the Belarusian People’s Republic in 1918, a consequence of
World War I. The republic was replaced by a Communist regime on 5 January 1919, which led to the
establishment of the Soviet Socialist Republic of
Byelorussia. |
Estonia
N
owhere is the debate on who and what ought to
be commemorated as heated as in Estonia. In
2007, one person was killed and 150 were wounded
at a demonstration against the moving of a controversial war monument.
Liberators or Occupiers? | In June 1940, Soviet
troops entered the independent republic of Estonia
following the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop
Pact. The Soviets deported tens of thousands of
Estonians to camps. From 1941 to 1944, Estonia
was occupied by Nazi Germany. In the autumn of
1944, the Soviet Army reinvaded. Only after the
restoration of Estonia’s independence in 1991 did
the country replace the Soviet 9 May World War II
commemoration with other public holidays that emphasize its national struggle. History was restored
to the nation, said then Prime Minister Mart Laar.
The legacy of the harsh Russification policies enforced
by Moscow and the encouragement of Russian immigration into Estonia can still be seen today. Estonia still houses a sizable Russian minority, which
has quite a different view of the war. The Russians
see themselves as the people who rid the country of
fascism, while most Estonians look upon the Russians as new occupiers and themselves as victims.
When Estonia and Brussels were negotiating the country’s accession to the European Union, various member states criticized Estonia for casting itself solely
as a victim and for its lack of self-reflection. Particularly the public reverence for Estonians who served
in the German army and violations of the Russian
minority rights were a thorn in the EU’s side.
Remembrance Day | On 22 November, 2004, UN
Resolution 59/26 called on all nations to commemorate ‘all victims’ of World War II on 8 and/or
9 May. In response, Estonia established a day of
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 65
remembrance. Included among the victims recognized are the estimated 60,000 who served in the
German army, because, the government contends,
they were forced to do so. As official policy states,
“Estonia does not consider to be criminals those
who were forcefully enlisted to fight for the occupation regimes nor see the need for them to be punished.” The government also notes that it condemns
all crimes against humanity. Since introducing Remembrance Day, the government also lays wreaths
at the Holocaust memorial on the site of the former
Klooga concentration camp; at the cemetery where
Estonian soldiers are buried; and at the Soviet-era
Maarjamäe Memorial. Foreign ambassadors and
diplomats are invited to attend. The national anthem
is played and politicians give speeches.
The 9th of May is not a national public holiday. It is a
regular working day. In the government’s words
“[t]his day did not bring freedom to Estonia.” The
large Russian minority continues to celebrate Victory Day on
9 May, while the majority of Estonians celebrate Europe Day,
the day of peace and unity in
Europe. |
The German military cemetery,
part of Maarjamäe Memorial
complex in Tallinn, 8 May 2012.
Estonia commemorates all
victims of World War II.
(© HH/Xinhua/Nino Shlamov)
65
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
National Holiday
24 Feb. (1918) Independence Day (day off)
Public Holidays (days off)
23 June (1919) Victory Day, in honor of the victory over Germany in the War of
Independence 1918-1920
20 Aug. (1991) Restoration of Independence Day
‘Days of National Importance’ (working days)
2 Feb. (1920) Anniversary of the Tartu Peace Treaty
4 June (1884) Flag Day
14 June (1941) Day of Mourning and Commemoration, anniversary of the first Soviet
deportation of Estonians
23 Aug. (1939) European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism,
anniversary of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
22 Sept. (1944) Resistance Fighting Day, anniversary of the attempt to restore
Estonian independence
16 Nov. (1988) Day of Declaration of Sovereignty
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 66
Latvia
L
66
atvia was occupied by the Soviet Union in June
1940. In the ensuing period, more than 22,000
Latvian men, women and children were either shot
or deported to Siberia by the new regime. On 1 July
1941, the Nazis invaded Latvia. About 115,000
Latvians enlisted in the German army, mostly in
the hope of regaining independence or out of resentment against the Soviets. It was not until 1991 that
Latvia regained independence.
A FTER TH E WAR
One of the best-known tourist attractions in Riga is
the Freedom Monument built in the 1930s to symbolize the country’s independence. It is remarkable
that the Soviets left it standing. According to a common Soviet-era joke, however, the monument acted
as a travel agency: whoever laid flowers there got a
one-way ticket to Siberia.
Waffen-SS Veterans | After the Soviet Union collapsed and the three Baltic states regained independence, Latvia was the state most sharply criticized for allowing Waffen-SS veterans to hold
reunions. Latvian Legion Day on 16 March was
even turned into a public holiday in 1998, but
strong international pressure led to its abolishment
two years later. Just as in the other Baltic States,
the Latvian government continues to defend soldiers who enlisted in the German or Soviet army.
“Both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union violated
international law by forcibly mobilizing Latvian citizens into their armed forces. About 200,000 Latvian soldiers were compelled to serve in the military
forces of both occupying states and about half of
them (100,000) died while hoping to restore
Latvia’s independence.” (Source: Latvian Institute,
Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs) Every year on
16 March, veterans and hundreds of sympathizers
gather. They see themselves as freedom fighters,
not Nazis. Every year too, there is a counter demon-
Public Holidays (days off)
1 May (1920) Labor Day, also Constitution Day
4 May (1990) Independence Restoration Day
18 Nov. (1918) Proclamation of the Republic of Latvia
Other Commemorations (working days)
20 Jan. (1991) Commemoration of the Defenders of the Barricades
26 Jan. (1921) International Recognition (de jure) of the Latvian Republic
25 Mar. (1949) Commemoration of the Victims of Communist Terror
8 May (1945) Commemoration of the Defeat of Nazism and of the Victims of World War II
9 May (1950) Europe Day
14 June (1941) Commemoration of the Victims of Communist Terror (anniversary of the first
Soviet deportation of Latvians)
17 June (1940) Day of the Occupation of the Latvian Republic
22 June (1919) Remembrance of the Heroes (anniversary of the Battle of Cesis)
4 July (1941) Commemoration of the Jewish Genocide
11 Aug. (1920) Commemoration of the Latvian Freedom Fighters (anniversary of the peace
treaty with Russia)
21 Aug. (1991) Day of Independence and Restoration of Sovereignty
11 Nov. (1919) Commemoration of the Latvian Freedom Fighters (anniversary of the decisive
battle against Germany and Russia)
1st Sunday in Dec. Remembrance Day for Victims of the Genocide on the Latvian People by the
Totalitarian Communist Regime
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 67
Latvian Legion Day, 16 March 2008. (© Wikimedia Commons)
Genocide | Since 1990, Latvia has commemorated
the victims of the Holocaust on 4 July. On this date
in 1941, the Great Choral synagogue in Riga was
torched; hundreds of Jews locked inside died in the
blaze. Since 1995, this day has been legally recognized as a holiday.
In 1995, Latvia also began commemorating the Defeat
of Nazism and the Victims of World War II on 8 May.
The commemoration ceremony includes a laying
of wreaths by the president, the prime minister,
the foreign minister and other officials. Although
it is an officially recognized public holiday, it is also
a regular working day.
67
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
stration which includes a relatively large number
of ethnic Russians in Riga. This division was reflected in a survey taken in April 2010, in which just
as many respondents called Victory Day the most
important holiday as those who called Independence Day the most important (both 21%).
The law further specifies a great number of commemoration days to remember the victims of communist terror as well as many celebration days
emphasizing the country’s independence (just like
in Estonia and Lithuania). |
Diplomats laying
wreaths at the
Martyr’s Tomb in
Riga, 8 May 2013.
(© HH/Xinhua/Guo
Qun)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 68
Lithuania
L
ithuania ranks in the top ten of countries with the
most official public holidays, but none of these
commemorates the victims of war, celebrates the end
of war, or mourns an occupation. The country does
observe three public holidays that stress its independence – celebrations that were banned during
the Soviet era.
68
A FTER TH E WAR
Like Estonia, Lithuania observes the European Day
of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and
Nazism on 23 August. Flags, sometimes adorned
with special black pennants, are flown at half staff.
This is also the day for commemorating the unprecedented solidarity displayed by the Baltic peoples
in August 1989 by forming a human chain between
the Lithuanian capital of Vilnius and Tallinn, Estonia.
This was a non-violent protest against the MolotovRibbentrop Pact that was used to legitimize the Soviet
Union’s annexation of the Baltic States on that date
in 1939.
In 2006, Lithuania officially recognized the Day of
the Genocide on the Population of East Prussia.
This day commemorates the Soviet genocide of
ethnic Germans in East Prussia. Internationally,
this chapter of history gained notoriety through
the plight of the so-called Wolf Children, East
Prussian orphans who roamed the woods in search
of food and shelter.
Right and Wrong | Just like the other Baltic states,
the Lithuanian authorities are struggling with the
notion of who was ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ in the war.
On the one hand, collaboration with the Germans
represents resistance to the Soviet occupation and
the struggle for independence, which is justifiable.
On the other hand, the Nazis and their collaborators
committed atrocities, which is clearly wrong. During the war, more than 95% of Lithuania’s 210,000
Jews were killed. The Lithuanian government continues to draw criticism from international Jewish
Public Holidays (days off)
1 Jan. (1919) New Year’s Day, also Flag Day
16 Feb. (1918) Day of Restoration of the State of Lithuania
11 Mar. (1990) Day of Restoration of Lithuanian Independence
6 July (1253) Statehood Day (also known as Coronation Day, anniversary of the first
and only Lithuanian king’s coronation)
Other Commemorations and Celebrations (working days)
13 Jan. (1991) Freedom Defenders Day, anniversary of the Soviet Army’s attack on the TV tower
14 June (1941) Day of Mourning and Hope, anniversary of the first Soviet deportation of Lithuanians
15 June (1940) Day of Occupation and Genocide, anniversary of the Soviet annexation of Lithuania
23 Aug. (1939) European Remembrance Day for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism, anniversary of the
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
23 Sept. (1943) Holocaust Remembrance Day, anniversary of the destruction of the Jewish ghetto in Vilnius
(since 1994)
28 Sept. (1944) Remembrance Day for Victims of Tuskulenai, anniversary of the first death caused by Soviet
repression
16 Oct. (1944) Day of Genocide on the Population of East Prussia, anniversary of the ‘ethnic cleansing’
among ethnic Germans (since 2006)
25 Oct. (1992) Constitution Day
23 Nov. (1918) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of their formation
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 69
69
by two million people across
the Baltic states, Vilnius,
23 August 1989.
(© Lithuanian Central State
Archive )
organizations, among others, for failing to prosecute former collaborators and distance itself from
pro-German combatants.
In 2010, parliament adopted a law that named 2011
Holocaust Memorial Year in Lithuania. Its purpose
was to restore and preserve the historical and cultural heritage of Jewish Lithuanians and to pay tribute to Lithuanians who had saved Jewish lives
and/or fought against fascism.
In this act, parliament did not equate fighting against
fascism with fighting Nazi Germany, because by
doing so it would have offended many nationalists
and former partisans who had fought alongside the
Germans against the Soviet Union. These veterans
receive a war pension and are honored on the third
Sunday in May. About ten years ago a grass-roots
movement started organizing street marches in
which participants waved Lithuanian flags and sang
patriotic songs on festive days and carried candles
on commemoration days. These marches met with
resistance from the Russian minority and anarchists, because neo-Nazis joined them. These days,
a few hundred far-right activists hold an annual,
unauthorized rally on 11 March (Day of the Restoration of Independence).
The media has made some less controversial attempts
to create new national holiday traditions. For example, in 2009 Lithuanians all over the world were
asked to sing the national anthem on 6 July, Statehood Day. |
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Part of the human chain formed
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 70
Armenia
A
rmenia primarily observes holidays that refer to
its hard-won independence. This small, Christian
nation was not just annexed by the Soviet Union
from 1920 to 1990, it is also permanently surrounded by ‘hostile’ nations like Turkey and Azerbaijan,
Muslim countries such as Iran, and Georgia, which
unlike Armenia has had a troubled relationship
with Moscow in recent times.
70
A FTER TH E WAR
In the 1960s, 70s and 80s, during the Soviet era, the
Armenians erected numerous war memorials all
over the country. In the capital Yerevan, a Victory
Park with an eternal flame was constructed. A war
museum located in the park opened its doors in
the 1970s. It featured a research department dedicated to studying the Armenian contribution to the
victory over fascism. The republic was not occupied
by the Nazis in World War II, but roughly half of
the 500,000 Armenian soldiers who were sent to
the front did not return.
Month of Victories | In 1990, the precursor to the
Armenian Parliament debated whether 9 May, Victory Day, should be celebrated at all. The holiday
was reinstated, but it quickly took on a different
hue. On 9 May 1992, Armenian troops conquered
the city of Shusha in Nagorno-Karabakh, a turning
point in the war with Azerbaijan over this enclave.
Since then, Armenians have called May the Month
of Victories, especially because another important
victory, in the 1918 Battle of Sardarabad against
the Ottoman Empire, had also taken place in May.
The joyful month of May is preceded by the sad
month of April when, on 24 April, the many hundreds of thousands of victims of the 1915 genocide
are remembered. This day is gaining in popularity,
in response to Turkey’s economic blockade and
Ankara’s denial of the genocide. Because Israel
does not recognize the Armenian genocide either,
Armenia devotes only modest attention to the Holocaust.
On 9 May, the president visits Nagorno-Karabakh
(which the Armenians also call Artsakh, after the
province from Antiquity that roughly overlaps with
the current territory). In a sense, this bridges the
gap between the past, the present and the (desired)
future: the 1945 victory inspires Artsakh’s struggle
for independence, as the president recently stated.
He concluded diplomatically but menacingly that
“9 May provides substantial evidence that, in case
of emergency, we will not hesitate to exercise our
Public Holidays (days off)
28 Jan. (1992) Army Day, anniversary of their formation
24 Apr. (1915) Genocide Memorial Day (since 1965)
9 May (1945/1992) Day of Victory and Peace
28 May (1918) Day of the Republic
5 July (1995) Constitution Day
21 Sept. (1991) Independence Day
Other Commemorations and Celebrations (working days)
28 Feb. (1988) Commemoration Day for the victims of massacres organized
in Azerbaijani SSR and for the protection of refugee Armenian rights,
anniversary of the anti-Armenian pogroms in Sumgait
8 May (1992) Defender of the Motherland Day
14 June (1949) Memorial Day for Victims of (Soviet) Repression (since
1999)
29 June (1992) Day of Those who Died for the Motherland and MIAs
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 71
71
right to self-defense and to do so to the maximum
of our capacity.” A military parade is held in the
capital of the autonomous region.
On 9 May, the prime minister, the speaker of parliament, the defense minister, high-ranking civil servants and military staff visit Yerevan’s Victory Park,
where they lay wreaths at the eternal flame and
remember the victims by observing a minute of
silence. Next, a modest military parade is held and
the officials meet with veterans and ‘freedom fighters.’ The prime minister sits down in an army tent
to share an old-fashioned soldier’s lunch, comparable to C-rations. The diplomatic corps is invited.
The day concludes with a fireworks show. |
Azerbaijan
O
ld film footage shows Hitler being presented
with a birthday cake in the shape of the
Caspian Sea and being served a piece containing
Baku. The capital of the then Socialist Soviet
Republic of Azerbaijan was coveted for its rich oil
fields. But Azerbaijan never fell into German
hands and its ‘black gold’ ensured the country
would play a crucial part in supplying fuel to the
Soviet Army. In the first year of World War II,
Azerbaijan produced 25.4 million tons of oil – a
record that has not been paralleled since. Although
the republic was never occupied by the Nazis,
Azerbaijan lost more than 500,000 people during
the war, a sixth of its 3 million-strong population.
Most of those killed were soldiers who died while
serving in the Soviet Army.
Old and New War | By renaming the traditional commemoration on 9 May ‘Victory over Fascism Day’
rather than Victory Day as it was called in the Soviet
era, the emphasis has shifted from the glory of
military victory to the battle against evil. Modernday celebrations of the war victory are quite modest
compared to the lavish affairs in the Soviet era,
which may be partly because the date now coincides
with a more recent military defeat. On 8 and 9 May
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Military parade on Victory and Peace Day. Yerevan, 9 May 2012. (© HH/Corbis)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 72
72
A FTER TH E WAR
Public Holidays
9 May (1945) Victory over Fascism Day (day off)
28 May (1918) Republic Day (since 1990; day off)
15 June (1993) Day of National Salvation of the Azerbaijani People, anniversary of
Heydar Aliyev’s return to power (day off)
26 June (1918) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of their formation (since 1998; day off)
18 Oct. (1991) Independence Day (workday)
9 Nov. (1918) State Flag Day (since 2009; day off)
12 Nov. (1995) Constitution Day (workday)
17 Nov. (1988) National Revival Day, anniversary of the first serious protests against
the Soviet regime (since 1992) workday)
Other Commemorations and Celebrations (workdays)
20 Jan. (1990) Martyrs’ Day, commemoration of an uprising crushed by Soviet troops
26 Feb. (1992) Remembrance Day for Victims of the Khojaly Massacre
28 Mar. (1919) National Security Day, anniversary of the formation of the first secret
service (since 1997)
31 Mar. (1918) Day of Genocide of Azerbaijanis, anniversary of the ‘ethnic cleansing’
1992, Armenian troops captured the city of Shusha
during the war for Nagorno-Karabakh. Therefore,
it is not the most suitable day for the Azeris to celebrate a festive occasion. However, 9 May is still a
public holiday, with a strong focus on veterans,
who received an additional state benefit in 2013.
On this date, the president of Azerbaijan lays a
wreath at the war memorial in the park, close to
Martyrs’ Lane. The rather formal ceremony focuses
on the president and the veterans. Usually, the prime
minister, the speaker of parliament and the head
of the presidential administration are present as
well. The military parade has been discontinued.
The country still does organize awe-inspiring military
parades: on Republic Day (28 May) and especially
on Armed Forces Day (26 June). This has to do
with the fact that Azerbaijan is in a state of war
with its neighbor Armenia. Most holidays stress
the country’s independence and many of them
commemorate tragic events that happened in the
context of the struggle for sovereignty.
President Ilham Aliyev laying a wreath in Baku on the Day of Victory
over Fascism, 9 May 2012. (© Bureau of the president of the Azerbaijan
Republic)
There is some room in Azerbaijan to discuss its role
in World War II (even about the Azeri who chose
Germany’s side). In October 2012, a groundbreaking conference took place. One of the things that
became clear there is how tempting it is for the
Azeris to draw comparisons between World War
II and the Holocaust and its armed conflict with
Armenia and the ethnic cleansing which took so
many Azeri lives. |
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 73
73
26 May 2010. (© HH/Xinhua/Victor)
F
rom 1921 to 1991, Georgia was part of the Soviet
Union. Although Georgia was never occupied by
Nazi Germany, some 300,000 of its inhabitants,
or more than 8 percent of the population, died –
mainly while serving in the Soviet Army.
Immediately after the Soviet Union collapsed, Georgian politicians refused to continue to celebrate Victory Day on 9 May. In their view, Georgia had been
occupied by the Russians and Georgians had fought
side by side with their own occupiers to defeat Nazi
Germany. This point of view deeply offended veterans and other survivors who had made great sacrifices. In the late 1990s, 9 May was reinstated,
although the attending celebrations were more
modest and the name of the day was adjusted to
Victory over Fascism Day.
Squabbles over Victory Day | Georgia’s relations
with Russia steadily worsened under President
Mikheil Saakashvili, who came to power in 2003
after a velvet revolution. Saakashvili’s regime sought
Public Holidays (days off)
9 Apr. (1989/1991) Day of National Unity, anniversary of the Tbilisi Massacre, which occurred at an
anti-Soviet demonstration in 1989 and anniversary of the restoration of independence in 1991
9 May (1945) Victory over Fascism Day
26 May (1918) Independence Day
Other Commemorations and Celebrations (working days)
14 Jan. (2004) Flag Day, on the day parliament adopted this day
25 Feb. (1921) Day of the Soviet Occupation, anniversary of the Soviet invasion (since 2010)
30 Apr. (1991) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of their formation
14 May Tamaroba, in memory of Queen Tamara (ca. 1160- 1213), who ruled during Georgia’s
Golden Age
8 Aug. (2008) Remembrance Day for the Victims of the Russo-Georgian War over South Ossetia,
anniversary of the Russian invasion
23 Aug. (1939) European Remembrance Day for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism, anniversary
of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Georgia
Military parade before parliament in Tbilisi, on Independence Day,
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 74
to establish closer ties with the United States and
tried to get rid of the remaining Soviet symbols in
the country. The situation reached a low point with
the Five-Day War over South Ossetia in 2008. After
that war, Russia recognized South Ossetia’s and
Abkhazia’s independence, both breakaway regions
of Georgia.
74
A FTER TH E WAR
A year later, Saakashvili ordered the demolition of a
World War II monument from the Soviet era in the
city of Kutaisi. He was heavily criticized for blowing
up the monument, all the more because concrete
debris from the explosion killed a woman and her
8-year old daughter.
In 2010, Georgian military and political bigwigs were
not invited to the 9 May Parade in Red Square. In
the same year, Georgia instituted the Day of the
Soviet Occupation as a new memorial day. In 2011,
Victory Day was the cause of another incident. A
few days ahead of 9 May, the Russian President
congratulated the Georgian people on the World
War II victory, bypassing the Georgian government.
In response, the Georgian foreign minister laid a
wreath at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier on
8 May rather than 9 May, in the presence of several
Yugoslavia
foreign diplomats. His speech contained the
provocative statement: “I support the idea to move
the ceremony to 8 May when all of mankind celebrates the day of victory over fascism.” Just like
every year, veterans – their uniforms covered in
medals – gathered on 9 May in Vake Park (known
during the Soviet era as Victory Park). Their gathering was marked by a guard of honor, flag flying,
a brass band, and the presence of members of the
political opposition.
In November 2013, Giorgi Margvelashvili was sworn
in as Georgia’s new president after his party won
parliamentary elections. It is expected that Georgia’s relations with Moscow will improve under
his leadership and 9 May will no longer be a bone
of contention. At the same time, celebrations have
been decentralized and ceremonies made much
less bombastic than in Russia; these changes probably will not be reversed.
The Independence Day (26 May) military parade was
reintroduced in 2004. In 2009, the government
put a stop to the parades again in response to sharp
criticism from the opposition. In 2013, a scaledback parade was held with no marching troops. |
(1917-1992)
1918 - 1929: Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
1929 - 1941: Kingdom of Yugoslavia
1941 - 1943: see below
1943 - 1945: Democratic Federal Yugoslavia
1945 - 1963: Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia
1963 - 1992: Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
Y
ugoslavia was occupied by the Axis powers in
1941. Slovenia was split up among Nazi Germany, Italy and Hungary. Macedonia was partitioned between Bulgaria and Albania, which also
took control of the greater part of Kosovo and so
became Greater Albania. Following the Axis occupation, puppet governments came to power in Ser-
bia, Croatia and Montenegro. A particularly infamous actor in the war was Croatia’s fascist Ustaša
militia.
Resistance came from the Chetniks, who were in favor
of reinstating the monarchy, and from Communist
partisans led by Josip Broz Tito. Some of the Chetniks
ended up collaborating with the Axis because they
saw Communism as the greater evil. As a consequence, the Allies supported Tito, positioning him
to become the post-war leader of the Communist
Federal People’s Republic of Yugoslavia. From then
on, any national commemorations referred exclusively to the Communist war efforts.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 75
It was not until 15 May 1945 that the Ustaša, and what
was left of the Serbian State Guard and Serbian
Volunteer Corps, surrendered to British troops.
This also became a national public commemoration
day called Victory in Yugoslavia Day.
Republic Day | For a long time, Republic Day on 29
November was Yugoslavia’s main national holiday.
It referred to the date in 1943 when the Anti-Fascist
Council for National Liberation was formed, and
in 1945, when the Federal People’s Republic of
Yugoslavia was proclaimed. Workers were even given
two days off for this holiday (29-30 November).
On Republic Day, children could join the Pioneers, a
prestigious communist youth movement, blue collar workers had a long weekend off and city dwellers
visited relatives in the country. Because November
was known as the slaughter month, in Serbia and
Croatia it became a tradition to slaughter a pig on
Republic Day. After President Tito’s death on 4 May
1980, the Communists gradually lost power, and
Republic Day its luster. In 2002, the Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)
was the last of Yugoslavia’s former constituent states
to let go of 29 November as its national holiday. |
Croatia
T
he Fascist Ustaša movement, which rose to power
after the Germans invaded Yugoslavia, were
responsible for the killing of approximately half a
million Serbians and 37,000 Jews. Hundreds of
thousands of Serbians were displaced or forced to
convert to Catholicism.
After World War II, Croatia continued to commemorate the uprising against the Ustaše in the village
of Srb on 27 July. The uprising was the work of
Croatian Serbs, however, and was therefore controversial: many Croats see these events as a Serbian
act of revenge against Croats. The monument to
the Srb uprising was destroyed in the Croatian war
of independence in the 1990s, as were approximately 3,000 other war memorials. In those years,
the Ustaše were more or less rehabilitated.
75
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Main Public Holidays (days off)
4 July (1941) Fighter’s Day, commemoration of the Communist Party Central
Committee’s uprising against the German occupiers
29 Nov. (1943/1945) Republic Day, anniversary of the establishment of the AntiFascist Council for National Liberation and the proclamation of the Federal
People’s Republic of Yugoslavia
Selected Other Commemorations and Celebrations (working days)
1 Apr. Youth Work Action Day, originated during the war
9 May (1945) Victory Day (1946-47: day off; 1948-1964: working day; 1965-1991: day
off)
15 May (1945) Victory in Yugoslavia Day, anniversary of the surrender of the last proGerman troops
7 Nov. (1917) Anniversary of the Great Socialist October Revolution
22 Dec. (1951) Day of the Yugoslav People’s Army, anniversary of its formation
– Apart from the days listed above, each republic within the federation had at least one individual official
public holiday, as well as its own day to commemorate their uprising against the Nazis: 7 July in Serbia
(abolished in 2000), 13 July in Montenegro and 27 July in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 76
76
A FTER TH E WAR
Public Holidays (days off)
22 June (1941) Anti-Fascist Struggle Day, in memory of the day the first anti-fascist
partisan unit was formed
25 June (1991) Statehood Day, anniversary of Croatia’s declaration of independence
5 Aug. (1995) Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian
Defenders, anniversary of the Croatian army’s conquest of the city of Knin and
the end of the Republic of Serbian Krajina
8 Oct. (1991) Independence Day
Other Commemorations
28 May (1991) Day of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia, anniversary of the
birth of the Republic
18 Sept. (887) Croation Navy Day, commemoration of the Navy’s defeat of the
Venetian fleet
12 Dec. (1991) Croatian Air Force Day, anniversary of its formation
Anti-Fascist Struggle Day | When Croatia gained
independence in 1991, the government decided to
move Anti-Fascist Struggle Day to 22 June. On that
day in 1941, Croats had established the first Partisan
Division in the woods near the village of Sisak.
the ceremony is attended by officials such as the
president, cabinet members, members of parliament and of the diplomatic corps. Commemorative
speeches sometimes refer to the current situation
and the need to respect human rights.
Sisak is where the central commemoration ceremony
takes place. Every year, an organizing committee
is appointed, made up of representatives of parliament and other government institutions. Usually,
There are smaller commemorations and festivities,
organized by local councils, all over the country.
Veterans associations also do their part and help
organize these events.
Holocaust Education | People still gather on the old
commemoration day of 27 July, particularly Croatian
Serbs and Communists. In 2010, President Ivo
Josipovic unveiled a new, state-funded memorial
in Srb. The year 2012 marked the first year without
any presidential representation on the day. Every
year, the Croatian Party of Rights (which collaborated with the Ustaše in the war) organizes a protest
demonstration close to where the commemoration
is held.
Dignitaries laying wreaths on Anti-Fascist Struggle Day
in Sisak, 22 June 2012. (© HH/Xinhua/Miso Lisanin)
Croatia also observes Yom HaShoah. The Dutch Embassy in Zagreb currently supports NGOs working
with the Anne Frank Foundation to increase Holocaust education in secondary schools. They organize workshops to bridge the gap between past, present and future by discussing minority rights and
tolerance in present-day Croatia. |
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Macedonia
National Liberation War | Since Macedonian independence in 1990, the 2 August and 11 October
commemorations have been expanded with celebrations. On these days, both of which have been
observed since 1945, ceremonies take place in parliament and at war memorials nationwide. The ceremonies are organized by various ministries, local
councils, veterans associations and representatives
of the Jewish community.
Parade in Krushevo on Ilinden (Saint Elijah’s Day) and the Day of the Republic, 2 August 2003.
(© Reuters/Ognen Teofilovski)
77
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Public Holidays (days off)
2 Aug. (1903/1944) Day of the Republic
8 Sept. (1991) Independence Day
11 Oct. (1941) Revolution Day
23 Oct (1893) Day of the Macedonian Revolutionary Struggle,
anniversary of the foundation of the Macedonian
Revolutionary Organization (since 2007)
Other Commemorations (working days)
11 Mar. (1943) Remembrance Day for the Deportation of Jews
to Treblinka
9 May (1950/1945) Europe Day, Victory over Fascism Day
18 Aug. (1943) Anniversary of
the People’s Liberation
Army of Macedonia,
commemoration of the
establishment of the
largest battalion of the
(Communist) People’s
Liberation Army
O
n 2 August and 11 October, Macedonia commemorates World War II, but more specifically the
struggle for independence fought during that war.
The 2nd of August is ‘Ilinden’, or ‘Saint Elijah’s Day’.
This Orthodox Christian holiday has gained great
significance because of the Ilinden Uprising against
the Ottoman Empire in 1903 and the first meeting
of the Anti-Fascist Assembly for the People’s Liberation of Macedonia in 1944, the latter of which laid
the foundation for today’s Macedonian Republic.
Therefore, 2 August now marks the Day of the
Republic. On 11 October 1941, partisan units revolted
against the fascists, which is seen as the beginning
of the National Liberation War.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 78
People lay wreaths, observe a moment of silence and
listen to the national anthem to remember all
28,000 victims of World War II: soldiers, civilians,
victims of persecution and Holocaust victims. The
ceremony in parliament is normally attended by
the head of state, prime minister, speaker of parliament, defense minister, foreign diplomats, survivors and veterans. In addition, schools and universities host speeches, exhibitions, presentations
and film screenings on heroic war-time acts.
78
A FTER TH E WAR
Lately, 9 May celebrations have been quite modest
and more focused on Europe Day than on the Victory over Fascism, in line with Macedonia’s ambitions to join the EU. However, the president always
takes this opportunity to send his Russian counterpart a congratulatory telegram lauding Russia’s
role in the struggle against fascism.
Holocaust Memorial Center | Since 1953, the deportation of Jews to Treblinka is commemorated
on 11 March. In total, 7,200 Macedonian Jews were
deported to the camp, 98% of whom died. The
main ceremony is held at the Holocaust Memorial
Center for the Jews of Macedonia, which opened
in 2011. It is attended by government representatives and the mayor of Skopje. Holocaust Memorial
Day has been on the calendar since 2010.
Flag Days | In order to boost national morale, the
government has been conducting official ceremonies twice a month since 2009, raising a brand
new flag on one the main government buildings.
Macedonia’s Albanian minority (25% of the
2.1 million inhabitants) has been petitioning the
government for years to institute an Albanian Flag
Day (and Independence Day) in Macedonia, but to
no avail. This demand causes tensions that regularly lead to the burning of Macedonian flags on
28 November. |
Serbia
Public Holidays (days off)
15 (+16) Feb. (1804/1835) Statehood Day, anniversary of the
First Serbian Uprising in 1804 and of the adoption of
the first Serbian constitution in 1835. Also Candlemas
and, since 2001, Armed Forces Day
9 May (1945) Victory over Fascism Day and Europe Day
11 Nov. (1918) Armistice Day
Other Commemorations (working days)
22 Apr. (1945) Holocaust Remembrance Day
23 Apr. (1815) Army Day, anniversary of
the Second Serbian Uprising
against the Turks
21 Oct. (1941) National World War II
Victims Remembrance Day, in
memory of Serbian World War II
victims, anniversary of the
Kragujevac Massacre
W
orld War I ended nearly a century ago, but that
did not stop Serbia in 2011 from proclaiming
11 November (Armistice Day) an official holiday.
More than a million Serbs lost their lives in World
War I: 60% of its male population. In the Communist era, this fact was never officially commemorated.
Now, its commemoration is larger than the one on
9 May for the victims of World War II, which is a
regular working day. May 9, or Victory over Fascism
Day, emphasizes the Serbian partisan resistance
to the occupier (although civilian casualties and
victims of persecution are remembered too) and
Serbia’s anti-fascist inclination. The events
of 9 May are entirely government-run. Usually, official commemorations are limited
to the laying of wreaths at the Monument
to the Unknown Hero (devoted to World
War I) and at the Liberators of Belgrade
cemetery while the national anthem is
played. The ceremony is attended by the
president, the prime minister, the defense
minister, members of parliament, students
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 79
Guard of honor
holding up a
Serbian flag during
a World War I
commemoration in
Belgrade, on
10 November 2013.
(© Reuters/Marko
Djurica)
79
Victory over Fascism Day coincides with Europe Day.
In that sense, the country is attempting to bridge
the gap between past and future: the defeat of fascism is characterized as the basis of modern Europe
and its principles of peace, tolerance and collaboration. But the extent to which this link is emphasized
depends greatly on the government coalition. The
popularity of this day is waning now that 11 November has been made a national holiday and 9 May
has a double and therefore less clear-cut meaning.
Great Classroom | On 21 October, Serbia commemorates the 2,778 men who were executed in the city
of Kragujevac in retaliation for the killing of German
soldiers. Among those executed were hundreds of
high school students and their teachers. Today,
many students attend a pacifist meeting known as
the Great Classroom, in Shumarice Memorial Park.
The meeting is also attended by the president, several ministers and foreign ambassadors. Since 2011,
this day has been officially recognized as National
World War II Victims Remembrance Day.
Holocaust victims are remembered separately on
Holocaust Memorial Day (27 January) and Holocaust Remembrance Day (National Remembrance
Day for Victims of the Holocaust, Genocide and
Fascism) on 22 April. On this date in 1945, Serbian
prisoners attempted to escape from Yasenovac concentration camp in Croatia. |
Slovenia
O
n 26 April 1941, the Slovenian Liberation Front
was formed, a mainly Communist partisan
group that resisted Slovenia’s partition by Nazi
Germany, Italy and Hungary. Towards the end of
the war, the Front clashed repeatedly with the antiCommunist Slovene Home Guard (Domobranci).
After the war, the Communists came to power.
Thousands of Domobranci were summarily executed.
Slovenia’s national holiday on 27 April to remember
the establishment of the Front has always been controversial. In 1990, the name of the holiday was
changed from Liberation Front Day to Day of the
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
and spectators, as well as ambassadors of (mostly
Eastern European) countries with which Serbia
maintains warm ties.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 80
President Pahor of
Slovenia passing
the Guard of Honor
in Ljubljana on
Statehood Day,
25 June 2013.
(© HH/Demotix/
80
Rok Rakun)
A FTER TH E WAR
Public Holidays
27 Apr. (1941) Day of the Uprising against the Occupation, anniversary of the
Liberation Front’s formation (day off)
25 June (1991) Statehood Day, anniversary of the declaration of sovereignty (day off)
17 Aug. (1919) Day of Prekmurje Slovenes Incorporated into the Mother Nation
(since 2006; working day)
15 Sept. (1947) Day of the Slovene Littoral’s Return to the Motherland, anniversary
of the region’s return to Slovenia (since 2005; working day)
23 Nov. (1918) Rudolf Maister Day, commemorates the general’s capture of Maribor
and the surrounding region (since 2005; working day)
26 Dec. (1990) Independence and Unity Day (day off)
Other Celebrations (working days)
15 May (1991) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of their formation
23 Dec. (1991) Constitution Day, since 1997
Uprising against the Occupation. In 2013 disputes
prevented the organization of a national ceremony
for the second year running. Earlier ceremonies
tended to feature the national anthem, speeches
and a musical program broadcast on national TV
and radio. On those occasions, the president and
the speaker of parliament spoke of the war as the
first occasion when people started to strive for what
later became established rights: Slovenian independence and freedom. They also stressed the need
for solidarity and resistance in difficult times.
The ceremony is organized by the Department of
State Ceremonies, which was established in 2009
and falls under the Ministry of Culture.
Celebration in the City | Victory Day is of no consequence in Slovenia, but the capital of Ljubljana
does celebrate on 9 May. From 1995 on, this holiday
was no longer known as Liberation Day (anniversary of the city’s liberation on 9 May 1945), but as
Freedom and Peace Day. |
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 81
Bulgaria
B
Public Holidays (days off)
3 Mar. (1878) Day of Bulgaria’s Liberation from Ottoman Rule
6 May Day of Courage and Bulgarian Army Day, on Saint
George’s Day, the Army’s patron saint
6 Sept. (1885) Unification Day, anniversary of Eastern
Rumelia’s unification with Bulgaria
22 Sept. (1908) Independence Day
1 Nov. National Revival Leaders Day (1923-1945; reinstated in
1992)
Other Commemoration Days (working days)
10 Mar. (1943) Holocaust Memorial Day
16 Apr. (1879) Constitution Day
9 May (1950/1945) Europe Day (and Victory Day)
2 June (1876) Hristo Botev Day and Day of the Struggle for
Freedom and Independence, anniversary of this
revolutionary’s death
On 9 September 1944 – four days after the Soviet invasion – the Communists seized power. They sided
with the USSR and declared war on Germany. In
light of Bulgaria’s switch of allegiance during the
war, its celebration of Victory Day has always been
uneasy. These days, Bulgaria organizes a modest
celebration in honor of Europe Day on 9 May, but
the Russian ambassador also lays a wreath in memory of Victory Day in a ceremony attended by war
veterans.
In 2011, Moscow was furious to discover that the bronze
figures of the Monument to the Soviet Army in Sofia
had been painted over by unknown artists to resemble American comic strip heroes such as Superman
as well as other figures including Santa Claus and
Ronald McDonald. A caption underneath read
‘Abreast of the Times.’ Later, the monument was repeatedly used as a staging ground for protest; it was
painted over to decry ACTA (a set of anti-piracy laws)
and the arrest of Pussy Riot band members and to
mark the anniversary of Prague Spring. |
The painted-over Monument to the Soviet Army in
Sofia, 19 June 2011. (© Michal Jancek/michaljancek.com)
81
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
ulgaria joined the Axis Powers in early March
1941. A month later the Bulgarian army took
part in the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece. In
exchange for his support, the Nazis allowed Tsar
Boris III to occupy most of Greek Thrace, Yugoslav
Macedonia and the Pirot District of Serbia. The
authorities deported a total of 11,343 Jews from
these regions. In response to a swelling tide of
protest by various parties including the Orthodox
church, the Tsar did not hand over Bulgaria’s
50,000 Jews (0.8 percent of the population) to the
Nazis. Instead, the Jews of Sofia were exiled to the
countryside in May 1943. The men were forced to
work. Jewish property was confiscated.
Uneasy Celebration | Although Bulgaria has observed Holocaust Memorial Day every 10th of March
since 2003, the nation tends not to reflect too deeply
on its own past. The focus of Holocaust Memorial
Day is on the Bulgarian Jews whose lives were
spared, not on the deportations from occupied territories. It was not until 2013 that parliament recognized the latter, and even then it did so only in
veiled terms.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 82
Hungary
D
efeat in World War I led to the collapse of the
Austro-Hungarian monarchy. Under the terms
of the Treaty of Trianon, Hungary lost 72 percent
of its territory. Admiral Miklós Horthy’s regime
sought closer relations with Nazi Germany in the
1930s in order to regain the land it lost. With help
from the Germans, Hungary managed to recover
part of Transylvania and Slovakia in 1940.
82
A FTER TH E WAR
In the hope of preventing Soviet occupation, Horthy
entered a dialogue with the Allies in 1944. Then,
Germany invaded Hungary and ousted him. Less
than a month later, on 16 April 1944, the UngarnAktion, or Hungarian Holocaust, began. In a few
months’ time, 438,000 of Hungary’s 840,000 Jews
were sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau and gassed.
Attempts to limit the Soviet Union’s influence failed,
both during and after the war. The Soviets brutally
put down the 1956 Hungarian Uprising. After the
fall of communism, Hungary first opted to join
NATO (1999) and later to accede to the European
Union (2004).
Shoes on the Danube Bank | The Hungarian Holocaust has been commemorated since 2001 on
16 April. The commemoration ceremony consists
of an educational program at the Holocaust Memorial Center in Budapest, organized in part by
the Ministry of Public Administration and Justice.
Young people can take part in a writing contest entitled ‘Losses to Hungarian Culture,’ aimed at keeping the memory of Holocaust victims alive. Excerpts
from the winning essays are read aloud. The House
of Terror Museum hosts a memorial concert. The
cities of Hódmezövásárhely and Pécs also host
events. In Budapest, Holocaust Memorial Day ends
at 7 p.m. with the placing of candles and pebbles
and the observance of a moment of silence at the
Shoes on the Danube Bank memorial. This name is
a reference to historical fact; during the war Jews
were ordered by members of the fascist Arrow
Cross militia to remove their shoes and line up at
Public Holidays (days off)
15 Mar. (1848) National Day, anniversary of the 1848 Revolution, the start of the War of
Independence against the Austrian Empire
1 May (1884/2004) Labor Day and Anniversary of the Accession to the EU
20 Aug. (1083) Saint Stephen’s Day, founder of the Hungarian State, anniversary of his
sanctification (1949-1989: Constitution Day)
23 Oct. (1956) Republic Day, anniversary of the Hungarian Revolution (since 1989)
Other Commemoration Days (working days)
1 Feb. (1946) Memorial Day of the Republic, anniversary of the proclamation of the Republic of
Hungary (since 2004)
25 Feb. (1947) Memorial Day for the Victims of the Communist Dictatorships, anniversary of the
arrest and deportation of politician Béla Kovács (since 2000)
16 Apr. (1944) Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust, in memory of the day the ghetto
was opened (since 2001)
21 May (1849) National Defense Day, anniversary of the Battle of Buda
4 June (1920) National Unity Day, anniversary of Hungary’s loss of 72% of its territory (since
2010)
19 June (1958) Day of Independent Hungary, commemoration of the execution of the martyrs of
the 1956 Hungarian Revolution (since 2001)
6 Oct. (1849) Memorial Day for the Martyrs of Arad, anniversary of the execution of 13 generals
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 83
Official Memorial Day for the Victims of the
Holocaust at the ‘Shoe Memorial’ on the
banks of the Danube, Budapest,
16 April 2008. (© AP/Bela Szandelszky)
the edge of the water to be shot, so their bodies
would fall into the river and be carried away.
In 2013, Deputy Prime Minister Tibor Navracsics
bridged the gap between past and future by stressing that Hungary not only mourns its dead, but
also those who were never born. “Several generations of talented, special people are missing from
the Hungarian nation,” he said.
Don River Defeat | Prime Minister Orban’s government has taken sharp criticism for failing to take
decisive action against the far-right Jobbik party.
Elie Wiesel, Nobel Peace Prize winner and Holocaust survivor of Hungarian descent, returned the
country’s highest decoration and accused the state
of whitewashing history and trivializing its collaboration with the Nazis. In response to such criti-
At the same time, the government has not distanced itself
from the Hungarian troops
that fought alongside Nazi
Germany. On 14 January 2013,
the defense minister took part
in an annual laying of wreaths
for the victims of the Don river defeat, 70 years
after the Hungarian Second Army was crushed in
the Battle of Stalingrad. More than 100,000 soldiers
and Jewish forced laborers died, 35,000 were
wounded, and 60,000 taken prisoners of war. The
minister called them heroes, regardless of what
side they fought on.
Representatives of the defense ministry took part in
a laying of wreaths on 12 February 2013, in memory
of the final day of the Siege of Budapest. When
reproached for ‘remembering Nazis,’ the ministry
responded that this occasion commemorates not
only Germans and Hungarians, but also Romanian
and Soviet soldiers and all civilians who perished. |
83
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
cism, the government points
to a series of measures it has
taken. The court of justice has
banned the Hungarian Guard,
Jobbik’s paramilitary branch.
Parliament has enacted a law
making denial of the Holocaust punishable by up to
three years in prison. Survivors’ pensions have been increased and, for the first time
in 80 years, a synagogue is being built in Budapest. In addition, 2014 has been declared
Hungarian Holocaust Memorial Year.
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:53 Pagina 84
Poland
T
he attack by the battleship Schleswig-Holstein on
Gdansk’s Westerplatte peninsula, on 1 September
1939, marked the German invasion of Poland and
the beginning of World War II. An annual commemoration of this event is held at the Westerplatte
Monument to the Defenders of the Coast. Wreaths
are laid and the president or prime minister addresses
84
the crowd. In 1997, 1 September was proclaimed
national Veterans Day as well. On 17 September, the
Polish also organize a smaller ceremony to commemorate the Soviet invasion that began shortly
after the German onslaught, on 17 September 1939.
A FTER TH E WAR
Katyn Massacre | Poland’s main commemorative
event is 13 April, when the victims of the Soviet-led
Katyn Massacre are commemorated. On 13 April 1943,
the first mass graves were discovered in the Katyn
Forest. Some 22,000 Poles – intellectuals, officers
and priests – had been murdered in 1940 on orders
from the NKVD, the Soviet secret service. Katyn was
one of three villages where the executions took place.
Only in 1990, after the collapse of the Soviet Union,
did Russia acknowledge its responsibility.
This tragedy and Russia’s failure to apologize and cooperate in the investigation have contributed to
tense relations between Poland and Russia. Poland
has created a special committee to deal with these
issues. Nearly every city in Poland has a Katyn memorial and local commemorations are kept alive by the
many relatives of victims. The 13th of April has been
an officially recognized national memorial day since
2007, although it is a regular working day.
Above: Russian and Polish presidents Medvedev and
Komorowski attending the commemorative ceremony in
Katyn, Russia, 11 April 2011. (© AP/RIA Novosti,Vladimir
Rodionov, Presidential Press Service)
On the right: Polish people commemorating victims of
the Katyn Massacre at Powazky cemetery in Warsaw,
1 November 2004. (© AP Photo/Czarek Sokolowski)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:54 Pagina 85
On 10 April 2010, the Polish government jet crashed
while on its way to Katyn, killing all 96 people
aboard – including President Kaczynski, ex-president Kaczorowksi, the Chief of General Staff and
15 MPs. The crash took place on Russian soil, in a
Russian-made Tupolev on its way to commemorate
a Soviet-perpetrated massacre, so conspiracy theories soon abounded.
The 3.5 million Polish Jews were even worse off; if
they were not killed immediately by Einsatzgruppen,
they were forced to live in overpopulated ghettos.
In 1942, the Nazis started deporting them to death
camps, most of which were located in occupied
Poland. Ultimately, some 5.5 million Polish civilians
and soldiers (almost 20% of the population) died
in the war. More than half were Jews.
The Nazis also murdered thousands of their enemies,
for example in the Kampinos Forest, in and around
Palmiry. The Nazis considered Poles Untermenschen
and treated them as such.
Warsaw Uprising | Until 1951, Polish employees
were given a day off work on 9 May to celebrate
Victory Day. But 9 May lost importance in the
country’s commemorative culture. The only time
85
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Public Holidays
1 Mar. (1951) Doomed Soldiers Memorial Day, anniversary of a Soviet Union show
trial of 16 Polish resistance leaders (since 2011; working day)
1 May: Statehood Day (day off)
3 May (1791) Constitution Day (1919-1939; again since 1990; day off)
9 May (1945) Victory Day (1945-1950: day off; 1951-present: working day)
1 Aug. (1944) National Memorial Day for the Warsaw Uprising, commemoration of
the armed uprising (since 2009; working day)
15 Aug. (1920) Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary; 1923-1947; also Polish Armed
Forces Day, commemorating the Battle of Warsaw in 1920, aka the ‘Miracle of
the Vistula’ (since 1992; day off)
31 Aug. (1980) Day of Solidarity and Freedom, anniversary of the Gdansk Agreement (August
Agreements; ending the strikes leading to the creation of Solidarity (since 2005; working day)
11 Nov. (1918) National Independence Day, anniversary of the restoration to Polish control of
territories ruled by Prussia, Austria and the Soviet Union (day off)
Other Commemorations (working days)
13 Apr. (1943) Day of Remembrance for Victims of the Katyn Massacre, anniversary of the discovery
of the mass graves (since 2007)
2 May (1945) Flag of the Republic of Poland Day, anniversary of the raising of the Polish flag in the
aftermath of the Battle of Berlin (since 2004)
29 May (1948) Day of Veterans of Foreign Battles, anniversary of the International Day of UN
Peacekeepers (since 2011)
14 June (1940) National Day of Remembrance for Victims of the Nazi Concentration Camps,
anniversary of the first mass transport to Auschwitz (since 2006)
28 June (1956) Day of Remembrance of the 1956 Poznan protests (since 2005)
2 Aug. (1944) Roma Genocide Remembrance Day, anniversary of the extermination of the “Gypsy
Camp” in Auschwitz II (since 2011)
28 Aug. (1932) Polish Air Force Day, anniversary of the Challenge 1932 victory
1 Sept. (1939) Anniversary of Nazi Germany’s invasion; since 1997 also National Veterans Day
17 Sept. (1939) Anniversary of the Soviet invasion
27 Sept. (1939) Anniversary of the formation of the Polish Underground State (since 1998)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:54 Pagina 86
it stirs controversy is when the government considers sending representatives to the 9 May military parade in Moscow.
86
A national holiday gaining importance is 1 August.
On that date in 1944, the Polish Home Army rose
up against the Nazis in the Warsaw Uprising, which
lasted 63 days. The Soviet Army was ordered not to
intervene and only took over control after the Polish
resistance had been crushed. After the war, the Stalinist regime discredited the resistance fighters and
executed or deported them to the Gulag.
A FTER TH E WAR
It was not until after 1989 that Poland could start
commemorating the Warsaw Uprising. This day is
gradually becoming a more national event. Air raid
sirens are sounded in the capital at 5 p.m., followed
by a minute of silence in which the entire city, including public transport, comes to a standstill. The
year 2013 marked the first time the sirens were also
sounded on 19 April, the day of the Uprising in the
Jewish Ghetto in Warsaw, an event much more
widely publicized internationally than at home. It
was also the first time that church bells were rung
in acknowledgement. There is an annual commemorative ceremony at Auschwitz on Holocaust Memorial Day and on 14 June, the anniversary of the first
mass transport to Auschwitz.
1, 2 and 3 May | Apart from commemorations,
Poland also has several celebrations. However, these
tend to accentuate Poland’s complex and controversial history. One of the main celebrations is Constitution Day on 3 May. The Communists treated
Labor Day, 1 May, as a major event. The current
government has retained the day, but renamed it
Statehood Day. In 2004, parliament added 2 May
as Flag Day, partly because the non-working days
of 1 and 3 May meant nearly everyone took the day
off anyway. But the date is also rife with symbolism.
It is the anniversary of the raising of the Polish flag
after the Battle of Berlin in 1945. In the Soviet era
2 May had another significance; on that day all flags
had to be taken down so they would not be flown
on 3 May (Poland’s banned Constitution Day).
Another important festive occasion is Independence
Day on 11 November, established in 1937. In 1945,
it was replaced by the National Day of Poland’s
Rebirth on 22 July, the day when a Moscow-backed
government presented its manifesto. After the fall
of communism, Independence Day was immediately reinstated. Festivities to mark it are organized
all over the country. In recent years, the day has
been marred by violent confrontations between
nationalists, anti-fascists and the police.
One of the ceremonies the President attends on 11
November is the Changing of the Guard at the
Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. On 15 August
(Armed Forces Day), the same ceremony is conducted there, preceded by a military parade, a
church mass and a promotion ceremony for military personnel in the Presidential Palace. |
Romania
I
n World War II, Romania initially declared neutrality,
then fought alongside Nazi Germany and finally
joined the Allies. After the war, the Communists
came to power. Nicolae Ceaus,escu seized control in
1965. His foreign policy was not always in line with
Moscow’s. In 1989, the dictator was deposed. Romania
acceded to the European Union in 2007.
Because Romania is continually maneuvering between
East and West, it is difficult to give a clear description
of how the nation commemorates war. Nationalists,
Communists, proponents of European integration,
war veterans and pacifists all have their own view
of history.
Heroes’ Day | After World War I, in which close to a
million Romanian soldiers and civilians died, Ascension Day was declared Heroes’ Day to commemorate
these deaths. In 1923, the National Military Museum
was opened and the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
inaugurated. But after the war, the Communists
who had risen to power with Moscow’s help changed
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:54 Pagina 87
Commemoration at the
Holocaust Memorial in
Bucharest, 11 October 2011.
(© AP/Vadim Ghirda)
87
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Public Holidays (days off)
15 Aug.: Dormition of Theotokos/Assumption of Mary, since 2008 also Romanian Naval Forces Day; Mary
is the Navy’s patron saint
1 Dec. (1918) National Day (Great Union Day), celebration of Transylvania’s union
with Romania
Other Commemorations (working days)
9 May (1877/1945/2007) Independence Day/Victory Day/Europe Day
Ascension Day (May/June) also Heroes’ Day (1920-1947; since 1990)
26 June (1848) National Flag Day (since 1998)
29 July (1848) National Anthem Day (since 1998)
23 Aug. (1944/1939) Liberation from Fascist Occupation Day; since 2011 also Day of
Remembrance of the Victims of Stalinism and Nazism (anniversary of the
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact )
9 Oct. (1942) National Day of Commemorating the Holocaust in Romania, anniversary of the first
deportation of the Jews (since 2004)
25 Oct. (1944) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of the liberation of Carei and the birthday of King Michael I
8 Dec. (1991) Constitution Day
21 Dec. (1989) Commemoration of the Victims of Communist Romania, anniversary of the peak of the
Romanian Revolution (since 2011),
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:54 Pagina 88
Heroes’ Day to 9 May, the date on which the Romanians had celebrated Independence Day before
World War II. Suddenly, 9 May was Victory Day, even
though the country had initially fought alongside
Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union and had lost
its independence as well as territory in the war.
88
A FTER TH E WAR
In 1958, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier was dismantled in the dead of night and secretly moved to
make room for a mausoleum for Communist Party
leaders. It was not until 1975 that Romanians were
allowed to celebrate their independence on 9 May,
in line with Ceaus,escu’s foreign policy that did not
toe the Moscow line.
was returned to its original location. Here, annual
commemorations are held for all casualties of World
War I and II on both dates. The laying of wreaths
at the memorial is attended mostly by high-ranking
military personnel.
On 1 January 2007, Romania acceded to the European
Union. Since then, 9 May has not only marked Independence Day and Victory over Fascism Day, but
also Europe Day.
Commemorations on 23 August also have a double
meaning. This date refers not only to the day that
Romania joined the Allied Forces, but also to the
day the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was signed. |
In 1990, after Ceaus,escu’s fall and the collapse of
communism, Ascension Day was again declared
Heroes’ Day. The Tomb of the Unknown Soldier
Slovakia
I
n 1938 Hitler took control of Czechoslovakia. Sudetenland, Bohemia and Moravia were occupied and
a third of Slovakia was ceded to Hungary. In 1939,
Slovakia officially became independent, but in practice remained Nazi Germany’s puppet state led by
the authoritarian, arch-conservative Roman Catholic
priest Jozef Tiso, an anti-Communist and antiSemite.
Gentle Revolution | Slovakia’s national holiday in
memory of the Struggle for Freedom and Democracy on 17 November has its roots in World War II.
During a demonstration against the occupation,
the Nazis shot a student by the name of Jan Opletal.
When his funeral led to new protests, nine students
were executed and more than 1,200 deported to
camps on 17 November 1939. In 1989, a peaceful
march organized by civilians commemorating these
events was violently put down by police, marking
the beginning of the Velvet or Gentle Revolution
that toppled the Communist regime.
Jews, Partisans, Communists | On 9 September
1941, Tiso’s regime introduced the Jewish Codex: a
body of 290 repressive anti-Semitic laws. More
than 70,000 of the approximately 90,000 Jews in
Slovakia were deported to Auschwitz. Rather than
observing Holocaust Memorial Day, Slovakia officially recognizes 9 September as the day to remember Holocaust victims.
On 29 August 1944, tens of thousands of partisans
rose up against the regime. After the war, the Communists tried to take credit for this resistance, while
the ultranationalists saw the uprising as an attempt
to put an end to Slovakian independence. Therefore,
this day – which is a public holiday – is not observed
by everyone. In the city of Banská Bystrica, where
the uprising began, a wreath-laying ceremony is
held in the presence of the president, the prime
minister, the speaker of parliament, the minister
of defense and foreign ambassadors. In 2012, the
president’s speech emphasized the fact that partisans in twenty countries took part in this uprising
and that this contains a message for the present
(read: European integration). He also mentioned
neo-fascistic and terrorist attempts to impose their
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:54 Pagina 89
Commemoration of the Gentle
Border, Bratislava,
17 November 2011.
(© Reuters/Radovan Stoklasa)
Public Holidays (days off)
1 Jan. (1993) Day of the Establishment of the Slovak Republic, also New Year’s Day
29 Aug. (1944) Anniversary of the Slovak National Uprising
1 Sept. (1992) Constitution Day
17 Nov.(1939/1989) Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day, anniversary of the student protest against
the Nazi occupation in 1939 and the beginning of the Gentle Revolution in 1989 (since 2001)
Other Commemoration Days (working days)
25 Mar. (1988) Day of Struggle for Human Rights, commemoration of the candle demonstration
in Bratislava
13 Apr. (1950) Day of Unfairly Prosecuted Persons, anniversary of the crackdown on monasteries
and monks
8 May (1945) Victory over Fascism Day
17 July (1992) Anniversary of the Declaration of Independence of the Slovak Republic
9 Sept. (1941) Day of the Victims of Holocaust and of Racial Violence, anniversary of the
promulgation of the Jewish Codex (since 2000)
19 Sept. (1848) Day of the First Public Appearance of the Slovak National Council, the
predecessor of present-day Slovak Parliament
22 Sept. (1848) Armed Forces Day
6 Oct. (1944) Day of Dukla Pass Victims, anniversary of the Dukla Pass Battle in the Carpathians
28 Oct. (1918) Day of the Establishment of an Independent Czecho-Slovak State, anniversary of
Czechoslovakia’s formation
30 Oct. (1918) Anniversary of the Declaration of the Slovak Nation marking Slovakia’s union with the
Czechs
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Revolution, at the Slovak
89
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:54 Pagina 90
ideologies on people. In Slovakia, the far right is
very popular. For example, in November 2013 the
Banská Bystrica region elected a neo-Nazi as its
governor. And in 2000, the nationalist mayor of
Žilina advocated erecting a monument to Jozef
Tiso and received strong support from Roman
Catholics for his idea. The nation also does not
object to remembering German war victims, as
long as they are not war criminals.
90
A FTER TH E WAR
After the fall of the Communist regime, Victory Day
was abolished as a national holiday, but was later
reinstated a day earlier (8 May). The Slovaks also
commemorate the Battle of the Dukla Pass, an
important landmark in the advance of the Soviet
Army. |
Slovak and Russian war veterans saluting at a commemoration
ceremony at the Slavín Monument during the Russian president’s
visit to Bratislava, 7 April 2010. (© Reuters/Petr Josek)
Czech Republic
A
fter the war, it took a long time for Czechoslovakia
to reach a consensus on which holiday or commemoration day to observe. Should it be 8 May,
9 May, or 5 May, the day of the Prague Uprising, as
preferred by President Edvard Beneš? It was only
in 1951 that the Communists managed to declare 9
May the Day of Liberation of Czecho-Slovakia by
the Soviet Army. Immediately after the collapse of
communism, the day was renamed Victory over
Fascism Day and in 1991 it was moved to 8 May.
But that did not end the debate. In 2000, the day
was renamed Liberation Day, and in 2004, with no
further explanation, it was renamed Victory Day.
The commemoration features a parade and a wreathlaying ceremony at the National Memorial on
Prague’s Vitkov Hill. These events are attended by
the president, the prime minister, other political
Czech soldiers
marching near the
statue of Jan Žižka
on Prague’s Vitkov
Hill on
Independence Day,
28 October 2011.
(© Reuters/David
W. Cerny)
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:54 Pagina 91
and military leaders, the Archbishop of Prague, and
war veterans. On this occasion, military promotions
are awarded and decorations bestowed on highranking military officials. Most Czech citizens simply enjoy the day off.
Prague Uprising | Today the Czech Republic observes
various war-related commemoration days. First of
all, the Czech Republic is one of the few countries
from the former Eastern Bloc to make 11 November
(Armistice Day in 1918) an official commemoration
day devoted to War Veterans. In addition, the country recognizes Holocaust Memorial Day on 27 January. More than 77,000 Jews from the Protectorate
of Bohemia and Moravia, as the Nazis called the
Czech part of Czechoslovakia, were murdered.
Another date that in 1994 was adopted by law as a
commemoration day is the anniversary of the
Prague Uprising on 5 May. The uprising is still the
subject of debate, though less about its timing than
the fact that the Americans did not come to the
Czechs’ rescue and that the Communists later
belittled its importance.
At its commemoration in 2013, President Miloš Zeman
said the uprising stemmed from years of humiliation and the loss of dignity. He warned that corruption and unemployment could now cause similar
feelings. Zeman also recalled Lidice, the village that
was razed to the ground in reprisal for the assassination of Nazi leader Reinhard Heydrich. He warned
against the dangers of neo-Nazism and nationalism,
emphasizing that society must be vigilant to prevent
history from repeating itself. Since 1967, an annual
international art competition for children and an
exhibition of their work has been organized to commemorate the murdered children of Lidice and all
other child war victims worldwide. |
91
Commemoration and Celebration in Europe
Public Holidays (days off)
1 Jan. (1993) Independence Day/Day of the Restoration of the Independent Czech Republic, also
New Year’s Day
8 May (1945) Victory Day
28 Sept. (935) Czech Statehood Day, Day of Saint Wenceslas, patron saint of the Czech people and
republic
28 Oct. (1918) Independent Czechoslovak State Day
17 Nov. (1939/1989) Struggle for Freedom and Democracy Day, anniversary of the student protest
against the Nazi occupation and the beginning of the Velvet Revolution in 1989 (since 1990;
public holiday since 2000)
Other Commemoration Days (working days)
27 Jan. (1945) Holocaust Memorial Day and Prevention of Crimes against Humanity
Day, anniversary of the liberation of Auschwitz (since 2004)
12 Mar. (1999) Day of the Czech Republic’s Accession to NATO
5 May (1945) Anniversary of the Prague Uprising
10 June (1942) Memorial Day for the Lidice Massacre, anniversary of the destruction
of the village of Lidice and the murder, or deportation and subsequent murder,
of its inhabitants in retribution for the assassination of Heydrich
27 June (1950) Remembrance of the Victims of the Communist Regime, on the day
political activist Milada Horáková was executed, after being falsely accused of
high treason and espionage
30 June (1918) Armed Forces Day, anniversary of the declaration of independence when soldiers
swore their allegiance to the nation
11 Nov. (1918) Veterans Day
After the war.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 15:54 Pagina 92
Bios and sources
Renske Krimp (Amsterdam, 1982) is a historian with the Dutch National Committee for
4 and 5 May. She is involved in research projects focusing on the persecution of the
Roma and Sinti peoples and the theme of freedom, democracy and rule of law. She earned
her Master’s degree at the NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies in
Amsterdam in 2007. In 2011, an article based on her Master’s thesis, Geskiedenis vir
Almal, dealing with the revision of history books in post-Apartheid South Africa, was
published in the Dutch scholarly history journal Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis. |
92
A FTER TH E WAR
Remco Reiding (Amersfoort, 1976) is a researcher, writer and journalist. From 2004 to
2013, he was a Moscow-based correspondent reporting on all countries in the former
Soviet Union for several Dutch media companies: the GPD news agency, the financial
newspaper Het Financieele Dagblad and the national news and information radio
station, BNR. His 2012 book Kind van het Ereveld, about his long quest for the next of
kin of Soviet soldiers buried in The Netherlands, received wide acclaim. Reiding has
been nominated for the Dutch journalism prize Het Gouden Pennetje and decorated by
the Russian Ministry of Defense. He received the RusPrix Award for improving
humanitarian relations between The Netherlands and Russia. Reiding currently works
as a researcher, project manager and advisor on commemoration. |
Otto Snoek (Rotterdam, 1966) is an independent documentary photographer. He exhibits
his work in The Netherlands and abroad and works on commission for various media
companies. From 1997 to 2009 he photographed the transformation of Rotterdam,
his native city. This resulted in a retrospective exhibit at the Nederlands Fotomuseum
and in the publications Rotterdam and Why Not. In 2002, he collaborated with Tracy
Metz and Janine Schrijver on the book Pret!, about the experience of leisure in The
Netherlands. Since 2007, he has been taking photographs on the theme of the national
identity of European citizens. For the project, he has visited every European nation on
the days that they offer citizens the opportunity to express their loyalty to the nation.
The photo essay in this publication is selected from that project. |
Sources
The sources used for this research report, as well as a digital copy of this publication, are
available online at: www.4en5mei.nl/onderzoek/toegepastonderzoek/herdenken_en_
vieren_in_Europa
omslag-eng.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 13:24 Pagina 2
Editorial Team
© Nationaal Comite 4 en 5 mei
Amsterdam, November 2014
Dutch texts on Western Europe: Renske Krimp ma
Dutch texts on Eastern Europe: Remco Reiding
Dutch texts, General Introduction and Introduction
to Photo Essay: Esther Captain PhD
Image selection: Mieke Sobering
Photo Essay: Otto Snoek
English translation & copyediting: Word’s Worth,
– www.wordsworth.nl
Design & layout: Martijn Luns – www.bureauLuns.nl
Printing: Roto Smeets, Utrecht
Copyright of the texts is maintained by the National Committee for 4 and 5 May and by the individual authors. Reproduction in whole or in part is not permitted. Photos and
illustrations are copyright. The National Committee for 4
and 5 May has attempted to trace the copyright owners of
the photographic material and to acquire their consent for
this publication. Whosoever claims copyright, personality
right, any other right, or privacy infringement, is advised
to contact the National Committee for 4 and 5 May.
This report was printed using plant-based ink on FSC certified paper.
ISBN 978-90-77294-12-3
www.4en5mei.nl
omslag-eng.qxp_Opmaak 1 22-12-14 13:24 Pagina 1
AFTER
THE WAR
COMMEMORATION AND CELEBRATION IN EUROPE
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Applied Research
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Applied Research