Download Civil Rights Impact on African American Musical Theatre Margaret

1
Civil Rights Impact on African American Musical Theatre
Margaret Forman
Journalism 560: History of Mass Communication
November 10, 2016
2
African Americans face racism and discrimination in all aspects of life, including show
business. The history of blacks in musical theatre dates back farther than most would assume in
minstrelsies and eventually into mainstream Broadway. The most popular black musical before
the Civil Rights Movement was Porgy and Bess (1935). Interestingly, the Civil Rights
Movement caused a decrease of African Americans in theatre. After nearly an entire decade of
black absence, The Wiz (1975) redefined modern African American theatre and started the new
trend of shows we see today. The Civil Rights Movement caused black theatre to transform from
negative misrepresentations of race to a celebration of culture that was appealing to all races. The
New York Times covered each era of black theatre throughout the twentieth century, beginning
with blackface minstrelsy, into mainstream Broadway, followed by the pre-Civil Rights version
of theatre, and into our modern times.
The beginning of African American representation in theatre was blackface minstrelsies.
It was difficult for black entertainers to present themselves as anything but “happy-go-lucky
darkies” and therefore had to conform to racial stereotypes to be successful.1 They would often
be portrayed by white men in blackface and black troupes did not form until 1855. They were
very popular and well received by critics. The article Minstrels in Music Hall said the audience
filled every box and every seat in the big house. “The jokes were not as old as some jokes are
and the songs were good”.2 These shows in the 1890s were so well received because the images
of blacks were shaped by white expectations and desires, not black realities.3 They laid
stereotypes and caricatures of African Americans for the twentieth century. The only positive
1
John Bush Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves: A Social History of the American Musical Theatre.
Lebanon, NH: Brandeis University Press, 2003, 28.
2
New York Times (New York City, NY), "Minstrels in Music Hall." December 13, 1891, 8.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/94816033?accountid=465.
3
Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves, 29.
3
aspect for blacks was increased employment in the white-dominated entertainment industry.
Theatre was one of the only avenues of black mobility in a white world and this continued into
mainstream Broadway, including A Trip to Coontown which premiered in 1898 as the first fulllength black musical.4 It was not groundbreaking in content, as it was still blatantly racist, but it
did mark the beginning of African American entrance into the managerial side of New York
theatre.
After nearly a decade of absence, audiences saw the return of African American theatre
in 1921. The show Shuffle Along built off the momentum of A Trip to Coontown as it was the
first show written, produced, directed, and performed by blacks. It was the most successful black
show because it gave actors a chance to perform non-stereotypical roles and provided
employment for African Americans.5 The story follows the race for mayor in Jimtown between
Steve Jenkins and Harry Walton, ending satisfyingly with the victory of Walton, the hero. Little
money was spent to produce this show and it profited greatly after strong critic reviews. The New
York Times wrote on premier night, “broad comedy scene that is effective, but little or none of it
is conspicuously native and all of it is extremely crude.”6 White audiences enjoyed its humor,
fast pacing, spirited dancing, and upbeat rhythms.7 It also proved that audiences would pay to see
African Americans perform and began to break the color barrier in theatres, allowing blacks and
whites to attend the same shows. The behind the scenes involvement of blacks allowed them to
create a real establishment in American Theatre. The depression soon followed the surprising
4
Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves, 31.
Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves, 71.
6
New York Times (New York City, NY), "'Shuffle Along' Premiere." May 23, 1921, 20.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/98423822?accountid=465.
7
Stanley Green, Broadway Musicals: Show by Show. Fourth ed. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard
Publishing Corp., 1994.
5
4
success of Shuffle Along and this caused African American progression in the arts to come to a
halt. Musicals focused on profit, not art form, and most blacks were willing to work for less
money but they could not earn a living wage.8 Nearly all of the African American musicals were
flops during the 1930s, with one important exception.
Porgy and Bess was a very influential show for African Americans and set the stage for
the changes that occurred during the Civil Rights Movement. Porgy and Bess is remembered as
the best black musical of the 1930s and the most popular opera written by an American
composer, though it did not represent the race well. The plot focused on the poverty-stricken
residents in Charleston tenement of Catfish Row. The sultry Bess is the object of desire of Porgy,
a disabled man, who has to take a stand against the thuggish Crown.9 It is midway between an
opera and musical comedy with a nearly all African American cast.10 It was considered a brand
of realism, with a straightforward plot that nearly committed to the worst case scenario approach
that wasn’t usually seen in musical theatre at this time.11 George Gershwin wrote about this folk
opera in The New York Times as a commentary on Negro life that includes “drama, humor,
superstition, and religious fervor”. Critics liked that it had light yet serious music and elements
of humor and tragedy.12 The creator, George Gershwin also explained his creative process and
how he wanted to appeal to a wide audience, not just a cultured few. “The recitative I have tried
8
Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves, 84.
Green, Show by Show.
10
George Gershwin, "Rhapsody in Catfish Row." New York Times (New York, NY), October
20, 1935, 2.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/101347005?accountid=465.
11
Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves, 85.
12
Special Thanks to the New York Times, "Gershwin's Opera Makes Boston Hit." New York
Times (New York City, NY), October 1, 1935, 27.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/101340968?accountid=465.
9
5
to make as close to the Negro inflection in speech as possible… all of these are, I believe, lines
that come naturally from the Negro.”13 The problem with this was that it was not representative
of black culture and contributed to the death of African American musical comedy until after the
Civil Rights movement. It promptly ended the short tradition of black creativeness that was seen
with Shuffle Along, as it was written by white Gershwin. He had no experience with black
culture, though he tried to be innovative and representative of it, as he explained in his New York
Times article. It was meant to represent a new view on African Americans, but no African
Americans worked on it and neither the plot nor the music was black origin. “Russian director,
Russian set designer, book written by two southerners, two Jewish boys wrote the music, and
performed by blacks.”14 This group could not create any novelties in this era and continued to
promote stereotypes and misrepresentations of this group. It represented the end of tradition and
experimentation with theatre and shut down the genre of black musical comedy. Black critics did
not like the decry of the presence of stereotypes seen in Porgy and Bess.15 No writers could find
a way to write for African American casts without dark undertones, especially during the Civil
Rights Movement. Porgy and Bess is remembered as the best black musical of the 1930s, but in
reality, it didn’t fuel change in the racially segregated theatre. But critics could not see how it
ended the African American musical genre until the 1970s, following the Civil Rights
Movement.
The United States went through a massive transition during the Civil Rights Movement,
even in the theatre world. In 1960, the US passed the second Civil Rights Act and there was an
Gershwin, “Rhapsody in Catfish Row”, 2.
Allen Woll, Black Musical Theatre: From Coontown to Dreamgirls. N.p.: Louisiana State
University Press, 1989, 173.
15
Woll, Black Musical Theatre, 172.
13
14
6
increase in peaceful protests. Most notably, the sit-in of black students at the lunch counter in
Greensboro, NC on February 1, 1960. The Freedom Riders formed and they worked for black
voter registration and access to public accommodations on an equal basis with whites. Another
event to note is Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. and his “I Have a Dream Speech” in 1963 and
the Selma march in 1965.16 All of these important events contributed to the disappearance of
black entertainers during the 1960s, as white American got increasingly aware of black America.
Shows like Porgy and Bess, Shuffle Along, and other African American shows prior to this
movement depicted all the differences between African Americans and whites.17 Blacks were
suddenly making demands to enter the nation’s mainstream. Shows were trying to emphasize
shared humanity on the basis of civil rights and they were all much too serious for musical
theatre. All of the black shows by blacks during the 1960s were flops. A few of these surprising
flops were Langston Hughes Tambourines of Glory (1963) and A Hand Is on the Gate (1966)
featuring the movie star James Earl Jones. All shows prior had whites as their target audience
and the rise of extreme Civil Rights, particularly the Black Panther and Black Power groups,
made white audiences lose interest. The only show that really addressed contemporary issues
was Hallelujah, Baby! (1967). It traced American black’s opportunities and status from the turn
of the century to Civil Rights, mostly in the world of show business.18 They tried their best to
create change, but they still had the same problems as before, white writers were trying to
represent black struggle. The 1960s was a very dry period for African American theatre as only
three musicals opened on Broadway during this decade. It would have likely stayed this way if
the Civil Rights Movement had not been successful. All of these historical events created
16
Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves, 201.
Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves, 203.
18
Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves, 205.
17
7
legislative change in the United States which allowed for new black theatre to be created in the
1970s.
The Civil Rights Movement was the biggest transition for black theatre because it created
the modern era of musical theatre. The 1970s was a strange time because writers tried to start
creating shows that would appeal to blacks and whites. Broadway had to go through a lot of trial
and error to achieve this new goal. Purlie (1970) was one show that tried to bring in black
audiences and convey a serious message in a comedic and upbeat style. Another was Don’t
Bother Me, I Can’t Cope (1972) that was friendly and appealing but also showed the difficulties
of blacks. This show was fairly successful and emphasized pride and dignity of African
Americans in a truthful way. Raisin (1973) is a more well-known black musical from this
transition era, based off the famous novel A Raisin in the Sun (1959). It follows a black family
living in Chicago’s south-side ghetto in the 1950s. Lena Younger wants to use her late husband’s
insurance money to buy a house in a white neighborhood while her son wants to use it to buy a
liquor store. They end up moving into their new home despite the sons mistakes with the
money.19 It is a life-affirming family drama that connects blacks and whites in the common
aspirations and ideals of the American Dream. This was still a story in which the most important
aspects are black struggle, just in an attempt to relate to white struggle as well. But, the musical
that truly created a new genre of theatre was The Wiz which premiered in 1975.
After Raisin was a moderate success on Broadway, there was a three-year gap until
audiences saw another black musical. But, they came back in 1975: updated, fresh, and better
than ever. The Civil Rights Movement had put a damper on African American shows, writers
couldn’t find a way to make a musical with an all-black cast relatable, representative, and
19
Green, Show by Show.
8
uplifting all at the same time. The Wiz premiered in 1975 and brought a new, feel-good feeling
but with strong statements. The Wiz followed the plot of the famous and beloved The Wizard of
Oz, but it placed Dorothy in a different context.20 The show was very successful, running 1,672
performances, starring an all-black cast, and mostly black creatives including Charlies Smalls
and William F Brown. This show proved that black musicals could actually be popular on
Broadway in the modern world. It celebrated black culture, history and heritage and did not
focus solely on discrimination and race like the shows that proceeded it. The Wiz sought
commercial success through black culture and positive feelings directed towards blacks and
whites.21 The creators achieved this through taking a story loved by all, The Wizard of Oz, and
having its music, choreography, set, and costumes reflect contemporary black life.22 Geoffrey
Holder said it was such a success because “’The Wiz’—Dorothy’s search for Oz—is a universal
story of growing up… Everyone—black, red, or green—goes through it.”23 This is seen in the
praiseful comments by most reporters, Kevin Sanders from ABC TV wrote “There’s been
nothing as spectacular as ‘The Wiz’ on Broadway in a long time, it’s sure to be success!”24 The
Wiz provided blacks with an established place in musical theatre, creating a genre that could talk
about serious racial issues in a light-hearted way.
The Wiz contained more meaning than white audiences and critics could see at the surface
level. Ken Harper, the African American producer of The Wiz, invested a lot of money in its
20
Green, Show by Show.
Jones, Our Musicals, Ourselves, 227.
22
Woll, Black Musical Theatre, 263.
23
Eleonore Lester, "Geoffrey Holder--the Wiz Who Rescued 'the Wiz.'" New York Times (New
York City, NY), May 25, 1975, 109.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/120592997?accountid=465.
24
New York Times (New York City, NY), "Display Ad 84--no Title." January 8, 1975, 29.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/120592997?accountid=465.
21
9
production but the show nearly closed before it reached New York after getting mixed reviews in
Baltimore. Bryant Rollins wrote in an article for the New York Times wondering Does ‘The Wiz’
Say Something Extra to Blacks? “[The Wiz] is full of symbols and associations, obvious and
obscure, that relate to crucial aspects of the show to slavery and emancipation, the black church
and religion, the great black migration form rural south to urban north.”25 The show contained
many symbols about race that can be overlooked if all the audience notices are the extravagant
costumes, fun songs, and simple plotline. For example, the Emerald City is shown as Harlem,
filthy and poverty stricken black New York. The music follows tradition of protest against
oppression in genres of Dixieland, swing, and modern music. Also the Wicked Witch of the
West represents slavery, she is an evil demon pulled onstage by slaves and the climax is when
Dorothy finally defeats her and frees the slaves.26 The interesting part is that even though there
were so many crude commentaries on slavery and discrimination, the audiences were still 60%
white. This proved that other shows like this could find success and it lead to more musicals
being focuses on different issues but targeting white audiences. The Wiz and the other musicals
to come gave a positive outlook on black culture and history. They celebrated life and not just
the bad things that occurred with Civil Rights.27
Musical theatre transformed drastically due to the Civil Rights Movement. The New York
Times covered each phase of the transformation of theatre until the creation of what the US
knows today as “black theatre”. Groundwork was laid by the blackface minstrels, the original
representation of black culture in the theatre. This lead into the beginnings of African Americans
25
Bryant Rollins, "Does 'The Wiz' Say Something Extra to Blacks?" New York Times (New
York City, NY), December 28, 1975, 77.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/120226184?accountid=465.
26
Rollins, “Does ‘The Wiz’ Say Something Extra to Blacks?”, 77.
27
Woll, Black Musical Theatre, 264.
10
on Broadway, although they were only represented through the eyes of white creators in shows
like Porgy and Bess. The Civil Rights Movement caused an absence of black theatre but it
eventually came back full force, led by The Wiz. The Civil Rights Movement was the biggest
transition in black theatre and it was the reason America sees the types of musicals it does today.
11
Bibliography
Gershwin, George. "Rhapsody in Catfish Row." New York Times (New York, NY), October 20,
1935, 2.
Green, Stanley. Broadway Musicals: Show by Show. Fourth ed. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard
Publishing Corp., 1994.
Jones, John Bush. Our Musicals, Ourselves: A Social History of the American Musical Theatre.
Lebanon, NH: Brandeis University Press, 2003.
Lester, Elenore. "Geoffrey Holder--the Wiz Who Rescued 'the Wiz.'" New York Times (New
York City, NY), May 25, 1975, 109.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/120592997?accountid=465.
New York Times (New York City, NY). "Display Ad 84--no Title." January 8, 1975, 29.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/120592997?accountid=465.
New York Times (New York City, NY). "Minstrels in Music Hall." December 13, 1891, 8.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/94816033?accountid=465.
New York Times (New York City, NY). "'Shuffle Along' Premiere." May 23, 1921, 20.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/98423822?accountid=465.
12
Rollins, Bryant. "Does 'The Wiz' Say Something Extra to Blacks?" New York Times (New York
City, NY), December 28, 1975, 77.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/120226184?accountid=465.
Special Thanks to the New York Times. "Gershwin's Opera Makes Boston Hit." New York Times
(New York City, NY), October 1, 1935, 27.
http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/docview/101340968?accountid=465.