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THE INTEREST AND ATTITUDE OF SAINT
GEORGE FOOTBALL CLUB PLAYERS
TOWARDS NUTRITION
YOHANNES BIRHANE
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
ADDIS ABABA ETHIOPIA
AUGUST 2013
THE INTEREST AND ATTITUDE OF SAINT GEORGE
FOOTBALL CLUB PLAYERS TOWARDS NUTRITION
YOHANNES BIRHANE
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SPORT SCIENCE
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN FOOTBALL COACHING
ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
ADDIS ABABA ETHIOPIA
AUGUST 2013
Table of Content
Content
Page
Acknowledgement……………. ……… .......................................................... I
Table of content……………….. .................................................................. II
List of table…………………….
................................... IV
List of Figures………………………………………………………………………….VI
List of Acronyms ...................................................................................... VII
List of Appendix ....................................................................................... VIII
Abstract .................................................................................................. IX
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the study .................................................................. 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem ................................................................. 4
1.3. Research Question ……………… ........................................................ 5
1.4. Objectives…………………. .................................................................. 6
1.4.1 General Objectives ................................................................... 6
1.4.2 Specific objectives ................................................................... 6
1.5. Significance of the Study .................................................................. 6
1.6. Delimitation of the Study ................................................................. 7
1.7. Limitation of the Study
................................................................... 7
1.8. Definition of Key Terms ................................................................... 7
1.9. Organization of the study .................................................................. 8
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. Sport Nutrition
....................................................................... 9
2.2. The Concept of Attitude ................................................................... 9
2.3. Demands of Football ....................................................................... 10
2.4. Nutrition for Sports Performance
................................................... 11
2.5. Energy Demand/Intake ................................................................... 11
2.6. Dietary Intake and Expenditure of Footballers .................................. 13
2.7. Nutrients for Football Players ........................................................... 14
2.8. Timing of Diet
......................................................................... 20
2.9. Supplement for Players
.................................................................. 24
2.10. Alcohol ........................................................................................... 27
2.11. Cultural and Regional Issues in Football
...................................... 29
2.12. Variables Influence Nutrition Attitude and Interest ......................... 30
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1. Research method .............................................................................. 34
3.2. Study Site. ........................................................................................ 34
3.3. Sample and Sampling ...................................................................... 34
3.4. Sampling Procedures ....................................................................... 34
3.5. Instrument
.......................................................................... 34
3.6 Data Collection Procedures
3.7. Methods of Data Analysis
............................................................. 35
............................................................... 35
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALISIS OF DATA …………………………
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1. Summary ......................................................................................... 59
6.2. Conclusion ...................................................................................... 61
6.3. Recommendation ............................................................................. 62
Reference
Appendix
List of Table
Table 1 demographic characteristics of the sample ................................. 37
Table 2 Descriptive statistics of the scores of player’s interest
towards nutrition ........ ................................................................... 38
Table 3 descriptive statistics of the scores of players attitude
towards nutrition ........ ................................................................... 39
Table 4 correlations among players interest, attitude age and
years playing in the club ................................................................ 39
Table 5- Data and result of independent sample t-test on
players interest towards nutrition between players who have
cultural influence and those who don’t have cultural influence. ...... 40
Table 6 Data and result of independent sample t-test on
players attitude towards nutrition between players who have
cultural influence and those who don’t have cultural influence. ..... 41
Table 7 Data and result of independent sample t-test on
players interest towards nutrition between players having
habits of fasting in fasting season and those who have not
habits of fasting. ......... ................................................................... 41
Table 8 Data and result of independent sample t-test on
player’s attitude towards nutrition between players having habits of
fasting in fasting season and those who have not habits of fasting. . ….42
Table 9 mean and standard deviation of the scores of players
interest towards in its nutrition attitude in age categories. ............. 42
Table 10: Result of the one way analysis of variance of players
interest in different groups of age categories towards
players nutrition ......... ................................................................... 43
Table 11 mean and standard deviation of the scores of player’s
attitude in nutrition in age categories. ........................................... 43
Table 12 result of the one way analysis of variance of player’s
attitude in different groups of age categories towards player’s
nutrition Attitude ...... ................................................................... 44
Table 13 mean and standard deviation of the scores on player’s
interest towards nutrition in different playing position .................. 44
Table14 result of the one way analysis of variance of players
interest in different groups of playing position towards nutrition. ... 45
Table 15 mean and standard deviation of the scores on
player’s attitude towards nutrition ................................................. 45
Table 16 Result of the one way analysis of variance of player’s
attitude in different groups of playing position towards nutrition .... 46
Table 17 Mean and standard deviation of the scores on players interest
towards nutrition in different playing experience grouping .............. 46
Table 18 Result of one way analysis of variance of players interest in
difference groups of playing experiences towards nutrition. ............ 47
Table 19 mean and standard deviation of the scores on player’s
attitude towards nutrition in different categories of playing
experience. ................. ................................................................... 47
Table 20 result of one way analysis of variance of players attitude in
difference playing position group towards nutrition
Total attitude ............. ................................................................... 48
Table 21 Demographic characteristics of the respondents’ (coaches)
Variables ................... ................................................................... 48
Table 22 Descriptive statistics of the scores of coaches
recommendation towards players nutrition interest ....................... 49
Table 23 correlation among coaches’ age, educational level and
coaching level ............. ................................................................... 49
List of Figure
Acknowledgement
I would like to take this opportunity to thank god for the abundant grace, love,
protection and good health enjoyed throughout the period of this course and
thesis. And I would like to thank the many people who played an important
role in the completion of this thesis.
First, I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Bezabih Wolde for extensive help;
patience and guidance.
I would also like to thank players and coaches of Saint George football club for
their cooperation and willingness to participate in this study.
I would like to thank the members of my family for always supporting me.
Finally thank you all friends who supported me in many ways Aynalem Beyene
for her secretarial work.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the nutritional interest and attitude
of saint George football club players. The participants include 25 players and 4
coaches from Saint George football club. They were selected purposely the
subject completed a nutritional interest and attitude questionnaire. To attain the
desire
objectives
the
study
a descriptive
survey based
on
structured
questionnaire was conducted. Data were analyzed with quantitative method and
spss (2010). The result of the study revealed mean overall nutrition interest and
attitude scores for football players’ was 67.40 and 40.20 respectively, age of
players correlated positively with nutritional attitude of players, no statistical
significant mean difference between players having cultural influence and
fasting habits with players who have no cultural influence and fasting habits
towards nutritional interest and attitude, no statistical significant mean
difference between players with different playing position and playing
experience towards nutrition. This paper recommends the need of scientific
nutritional course for players, coaches and players parent and also the club
should recruit nutritionist.
Figure 1: Diagrammatical representation of player’s interest
towards nutrition. ............... ................................................................... 38
Figure 2 Diagrammatical representation of player’s attitude
towards nutrition ................. ................................................................... 39
Figure 3 Diagrammatical representation of coaches recommendation
towards players nutritional interest. ........................................................ 49
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1. Background of the study
Soccer is the world’s most popular sport with competitors of all ages and
abilities. Many of these participants, at even a young age, train and compete at
intense levels, striving to improve their performance and become a top,
unbeatable player. At high levels of play, the demand of soccer requires a
player to be exceptionally fit both aerobically and an aerobically (Bangsbo,
1991)
Sport Nutrition is the application of nutrition knowledge to a practical daily
eating plan focused on providing the fuel for physical activity, facilitating the
repair and rebuilding process following hard physical work and optimizing
athletic performance in competitive events, while also promoting overall health
and wellness.
Soccer players can remain healthy, minimize injury and achieve their
performance goals by adopting good dietary habits. Players should choose
foods that support consistent, intensive
training and optimize match
performance. What a player eat and drinks in the day and hours before a
game, as well as during the game itself can influence the result by reducing the
effect of fatigue and allowing players to make the most of their physical and
tactical skills, and also food and fluid consumed a soon after a game and
training can optimize recovery. All players should have a nutrition plan that
takes account of the individual needs.
Energy need differ substantially among individuals factor, such as age, gender,
body surface area, and environment influence, daily caloric output. Also the
number of calories burned in exercise fluctuates with the frequency, intensity,
time and type (FITT) of activity, movement efficiency and status of physical
fitness (Hecker, 1987).
The official us youth soccer coaching manual (2002:73) suggests that, “as a
coach, parent or athlete, you have to have enough information about food and
nutrition to create a good training diet. The training diet is the foundation for
feeling on top of your game during practice or during a game”.
Sports nutrition, diet and food and drink for soccer players are becoming
increasingly scientific and recognized for its importance in the game of soccer.
Almost every professional soccer club has a nutritionist or similar expert
advisor for their team (soccer coach 1966.com).
Many researchers have investigated attitudes towards different types of foods,
including high fat or fruit and vegetables. (Brug et al., 1995). In all of these
studies, the strong predictive power of attitude and beliefs was found to have
an effect on consumption of different types of foods. However, only few studies
consider over all attitudes toward healthy eating patterns.
Aizen (1988) describes attitude as a disposition to respond favorably or
unfavorably to an object, person, institution or event within consumer and food
studies, attitude objects are offer attributes such as fat, odor, texture or
defined brands, or general product categories such as seafood or meat.
Aizen (1998)
suggested that attitudes have three components: a) cognitive,
which represents a person’s information or beliefs about the object b) affective
which deals with a person’s feelings of like or dislike towards the object c)
cognitive or behavioral; which refers to a person’s tendency to behave in a
certain way towards the object.
Nutritional attitude of players is related with food choice. Food choice is a
complex process which involves many different factors. The many attempt
mode to illustrate the factors influencing this process have resulted in many
qualitative food choice models.
Attitude affect perception of the sensory characteristics of foods Shepherd
(1987) developed the model which includes 3) factors related to choice 1) food:
its physical properties and nutrient content 2) the individual his/her previous
experience and learning associated with food, which in turn will lead to
different beliefs, values and habits 3 social-economic environment attitude to
sensory properties of food or healthiness of food, one example of a more recent
model of food choice is the conceptual model of food choice has three main
components: 1) life course: person’s experience 2) Influence: ideals, personal
factors, resource, social framework, and food context and 3) personal system of
strategies for making choices and value negotiations: sensory perception,
monetary considerations, convenience, health and nutrition, management of
relationship and quality. These different factors affecting food choice be
integrated by investigating personal attitude and beliefs (shepherd, 1987).
Attitude of players towards nutrition cannot be directly observed, but their
existence can be inferred from over responses or indicators. Because attitude
can be considered as evaluative tendencies, they can be expressed in terms of
affective responses such as feelings and emotions, and can be measured
through physiological responses that may be linked to emotional process.
Likert argued that attitude are most easily detected and expressed in verbal
form. Thus, another way for attitude measurement is to use self-report
questionnaires such as those constructed by likert scaling or by the a model
proposed by Fishbein and Aizen (1975) and Ajzen and Fishbein (1980).
Strongly a Agree, Neither agree or disagree, strongly disagree, can’t choose.
Food related decisions made by individuals are influenced by a complex array
of factors and processes. These include demographic factors, familial and
house hold influences, habit and price, health consideration, ethical concerns
and wider societal trends.
According to ClarkK.L(1994) during football training as well as during the
match in order to persist in continuous training or game, players should take
much amount of carbohydrate (55-60%). In addition to carbohydrate protein
(15-20%) should be given more emphasis while preparing or showing athlete’s
diet because, it has important nutrients which are used to repair body, and
growth of tissues and fat (less than 30%) is used as the second source of
energy next to carbohydrate.
The timing of the meal that players eat is important on the day of a match. The
intake of fat and protein should be restricted, as these nutrients require a
relatively long time to digest. Plan to have pre match meal at least three hours
before the match. Per mach meal should be high in carbohydrate, low in fat,
low in protein, not too bulk, and easy to digest (clark K.L1994).
Foundation soccer coaching manual (2008:248) explains that, dehydration, the
loss of body water, impairs exercise performances and increase the risk of heat
injury. As indicated in the official U.S youth soccer coaching manual (2002:28)
vitamins and minerals do not provide energy. But, vitamins and minerals play
key roles in helping the body breakdown carbohydrate, protein and fats for
energy and build other body structure.
Proper nutrition not only benefits an athlete physically, but also mentally and
that’s half the battle on the field. If the brain is not well fed, then the player will
not play to the best of their ability. Without the right food, a player can suffer
from the inability to concentrate.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
A world authority on sport nutrition recently noted that when talented,
motivated and highly trained players meet for competition, the margin between
victory and defeat is usually small when everything else is equal, nutrition can
make the difference between winning and losing (Williams, 2007). It is
important for players to understand basic nutrition information and have basic
knowledge of their energy and nutrient need in order to optimize athletic
performance.
Many players adopt rigid training diets that predispose them to under
nutrition, fatigue, and injury (Quatromoni, 2008). In many cases players who
adopt rigid training diets find themselves under fueled, pre occupied with
thoughts about food and compromised in their performance.
It is not common for players to have misinformed beliefs about their nutritional
need. With players training and playing regularly, diet is now seen as a crucial
part of the game to assist in producing maximum effort and allowing players to
maintain their own body weight and composition. But what exactly do the
players know and understand about the food they consume and the role it
plays in preparing the body to compete and train? Therefore, this study tried to
answer the following:
1.3 Research Question
1. What is players interest that holds towards nutrition
2. What is players attitude that holds towards nutrition?
3. What is the relationship between the demographic characteristics
(age, playing experience and playing position) of players and their
interest and attitude towards nutrition?
4. Is there a statistically significant mean difference between players
having cultural influence and those have no cultural influence on
their interest and attitude towards nutrition?
5. Is there a statistically significance mean difference between players
having fasting habits and those who have no fasting habits on their
interest and attitude towards nutrition?
6. Is there statistically significant mean difference between players in
different age categories on their interest and attitude towards
nutrition?
7. Is there a statistically significant mean difference between players in
different playing position on their interest and attitude towards
nutrition?
8. Is there a spastically significant mean difference between groups of
players with differing duration of playing experience on their interest
and attitude towards nutrition?
1.4 Objectives
1.4.1 General Objectives
The overall objectives of the study are to assess the interest and attitude of
saint George club footballers towards nutrition.
1.4.2 Specific Objectives
 To identify the relationship between demographic characteristics (Age,
playing experience and position of playing) of players use their interest
and attitude towards nutrition.
 To investigate players who have cultural influence and those who have
no cultural influence are significantly difference on their nutritional
interest and attitude
 To investigate players who have fasting habit and those who have no
fasting habits are significantly difference on their nutritional interest and
attitude
 To investigate players in difference age categories are significantly
difference on their nutritional interest and attitude
 To investigate players with difference playing experience are significantly
difference on their nutritional interest and attitude
 To investigate players position of playing are significantly difference on
their nutritional interest and attitude
1.5. Significance of the Study
In soccer game following appropriate and scientific diet (before, during and
after) training and match are crucial for the success of any football team at any
levels of competition. Hence it is essential to study the nutritional attitude of
saint George club footballers in order to examine the exact interest and attitude
of players towards its nutritional program.
The study will have the following purpose:
 helps to know the nutritional interest and attitude of players
 Helps to raise knowledge, interest and awareness of players towards
sport nutrition.
 Will serve as spring board for future researchers on the area.
 Initiate concerned and interested researchers in the area to expand
findings and to come up with new ideas and suggestions that can be
contributed to the betterment of adopting nutritional program in the
team.
1.6 Delimitation of the Study
This study was delimited to the nutritional interest and attitude of saint George
football club players also the study delimited to the men footballers.
1.7 Limitation of the Study
This study was constrained by the tight schedules of the Ethiopian and African
league championship competition. The researcher used the club administrator
to encourage the subjects to participate in responding the questionnaire.
1.8 Definition of Key Terms

Attitude- is a disposition to respond favorably or an favorably to an
object, person or event with in consumer and food studies.

Dehydration:- is removal of water molecule from the body

During competition diet:- is fluid which is taken during (within different
interval of) the game

Nutrient:-chemical constituent of a food that we eat

Nutrition:- is science that study about the effect of food to the human
body

Post competition diet:- which is taken by player after the game/training

Pre competition diet:- diet which is taken by player before the game/
match
1.9 Organization of the Study
This thesis has organized under six chapters. The first chapter deals with
background of the study, statement of the problem, objective of the study,
significant of the study, limitation of the study, delimitation of the study,
research question and definition of key terms. Chapter Two consists of sport
nutrition, the concept of attitude, demands of football, nutrition for sport
performance, energy demand/intake, dietary intake and expenditure of
footballers, nutrients for football players and timing of diet, supplement for
players, alcohol, cultural and regional issues in football and variables influence
nutrition attitude and interest. Chapter tree comprises research method, study
site, sample and sampling, sampling procedures, instrument, data collection
procedures and methods of data analysis. Chapter four consist result of the
study. Chapter five deals with discussion and the last chapter comprises
summary, conclusions and recommendation
CHAPTER TWO
Review of Related Literature
2.1. Sport Nutrition
Sport nutrition is the study and practice of nutrition and diet as it relates to
athletic performance. It is concerned with the type and quantity of fluid and
food taken by players, and deals with nutrients such as vitamins, minerals,
supplements and organic substance such as carbohydrate, proteins and fats.
During match consuming carbohydrate in the form of a liquid beverage or
sports drink is important.
Football is among the most popular sport in the world. However, despite the
immense popularity and vast amount of money now involved in the modern
game, relatively little work has been undertaken to assess the role of nutrition
in football and players perceptions of the role. In years gone by, players would
eat what they liked. However, today’s game has developed with players training
and behaving more like elite players. This change in approach has coincided
with an increase in the tempo and intensity during top competitive football over
the past two decades (Reilly, 1996)
2.2. The Concept of Attitude
The concept of attitudes until the 1960s, social scientists viewed “attitudes as
behavioral dispositions” and presumed that attitudes could help explain
human actions (Azien & Fishbein, 1980; as cited by Suzanne (2002). The study
of attitudes has been “characterized by an embarrassing degree of ambiguity
and confusion” (Fishbein and Azien, 1975; as cited by Suzanne 2002). In the
process of defining attitude, many researchers have used several different
definitions to describe the term. Lousis Thurston (1928; as cited by Suzenne
2002) defined attitude as “a man’s inclinations and feelings, prejudice or bias,
preconceived notions, ideas, fears, threats, and convictions about any specific
topic”.
Despite the long history of research on attitudes, there is no universally agreed
definition (Olson and Zanna, 1993; as cited by Abate 2001). For instance,
Fishbein and Aizen (1975; as cited by Abate 2001) defined attitude as a
general, enduring positive or negative feeling about some person, object or
issue. According to Kalat (1986; as cited by Abate 2001), the term attitude has
been defined in many ways, such as “the evaluative feeling that a given object
“or” a learned predisposition to respond to something positively or negatively”.
Another possible definition is this: “an attitude is a belief that affects a person’s
evaluation of future evidence”. In addition to this, Rhodewalt (1988; as cited by
Abate 2001), defined attitude as the expression of the intensity and direction of
affect toward a psychological object.
2.3. Demands of Football
As Reilly, Carter and Maritin (2000) suggest, football game consists of high
activity levels at a fast pace. During a 90 minute game, an elite level player
covers around 10km. As Matkovic, Jankovic and Heimer (1993) suggest such
effort requires a good aerobic capacity. Whilst the anaerobic energy system
plays an essential role in football, with a large number of sprints undertaken in
a game, the aerobic system supplies the greatest amount of energy. High
aerobic fitness has the potential to optimize performance by enhancing
recovery during the game (Green and McMillan, 2001). Having a high aerobic
capacity decreases the player’s use of glycogen and minimizes the likelihood of
long-term fatigue in turn enhancing the performance of a player during
training or, more importantly, a competitive game. Wide ranges of Vo2max
amongst professional players have been reported (Reilly, Bangsbo and Franks,
2000), however as Reilly (1996) suggests, average values for outfield players
appears to be around 60 mlkg-1 min-1.
Directional movements of a game have also been extensively examined. A game
“encompasses over 1000 different activities, with a change in the type or level
of activity occurring about once every 6 seconds” (reilly 1997, p258), with no
movement lasting for 15 seconds or more on average (Ali and Farrally, 1991).
Movements have been further broken down into their specific types, with the
overall distance covered by outfield players during a match consisting of 25%
walking, 37% jogging, 20% cruising sub maximally, 11% sprinting, and 7%
moving backwards (Reilly, 1994). Within the modern game there are more and
more competitions (league and cups) after, resulting in two games a week. It is
not unknown for a team involved in successful cup runs to play games every
three days. It is in these cases where recovery and refueling are essential to
enable maximal effort in the subsequent games.
2.4. Nutrition for Sports Performance
Having established that high demands are placed upon players during a
season, with pre-season to regain any loss in fitness over the post season
break, regular training to regain any loss in fitness over the post season break,
regular training and matches which can occur twice a week regularly
throughout the season, it is important to be aware of exactly what role food
plays in performance. By having awareness of the foods that they are
consuming players will be able to control their own body mass. This is
important as Pollock and Jackson (1984) suggest an increase or excess of body
fat can impair physical performance and makes a person more susceptible to
injury.
Total calorie intake values have been suggested (Bangsbo, 1994a, Clark, 1994)
to help competitors meet energy demands of their chosen sport and to help
maximize their potential when coupled with the appropriate training.
2.5. Energy Demand/Intake
Calorie intake of players is different depending up on the type and level of
physical activities (duration and intensity), and the age and body size. This
indicates that the calorie intake and expenditure of athletes has a direct
reaction with the type of activity they do, their body size and age. To strengthen
this idea, Foundation Soccer Coaching Manual (2008:237) expresses that;
calorie requirements vary greatly from person to person and are influenced by
the level of physical activity, body size and age. Therefore, it is impossible to
establish a universal daily calorie requirement for players.
Some players have a hard time increasing their calorie intake because the
volume of a larger meal causes them discomfort, especially if they are training
soon after eating. Players juggling a heavy academic schedule with training and
part-time job may have difficulty finding the time to eat. These players benefit
from eating several small meals and snacks throughout the day.
The first priority for any players, nutritionally, should be to obtain
recommended energy needs. In order for an athlete to reach and maintain
optimal athletic performance, increase and/or maintain lean body mass, and
maintain proper immune and reproductive function, it is vital for him/her to
achieve energy balance (ADA, 2009). Players who fail to reach energy balance
may ultimately compromise their athletic performance, ability to train at a high
level, and they may also increase their risk of injury.
Bangsbo (1994) reported that male players cover an average distance of 11 km
during a match coupled with other energy-expending activities, including
tackling, turning, and accelerating. Use of distance covered in a match as a
way to assess energy expenditure underestimates the true cost of energy used
in football (Reilly, 1997).
According to Ronald, J, Maughan (1997) many players reduce their energy
intake at times to assist with the loss of body weight and body fat, but it is
harmful to restrict energy intake so much that it interferes with normal body
function. The diet must provide enough energy (calories) to meet the demands
of training and match play, as well as cost of growth, development, and staying
healthy. Eating less than this on a long-term basis will lead to a loss of
performance and a risk to health.
Players requiring advice for weight loss or fat loss should seek guidance from a
qualified sports nutrition expert such as a sports dietitian. If a reduction in
body fat content is necessary, this should be achieved gradually. Players can
avoid potential problems by taking care to avoid excess weight gain in the offseason. Careful management of both diet and differences in hydration levels
and longer term changes can’t distinguish changes in body fat and muscle
mass activity levels in the off-season and in the pre-season can help players to
reach their ideal weight and body fat level with minimal impact on health or
performance.
Players
should
individually
manage
their
energy
stores
of
body
fat,
carbohydrate (muscle fuel) and protein (muscle mass) by managing intake and
expenditure of these nutrients separately. These issues will be discussed in
separate parts of this booklet.
Players should follow an eating plan that helps them to achieve their specific
goals rather than relying on appetite to guide energy intake. Advice from a
sports nutrition expert is often required to develop this plan.
Players should use a number of separate biomarkers to monitor their progress
in achieving each of their energy-related goals. Monitoring body weight can be
misleading, and the information can be misinterpreted. Body weight is not a
reliable or accurate indicator of energy balance, since day to day changes
mostly reflect differences in hydration levels and longer term changes can’t
distinguish changes in body fat and muscle mass. Maughan RJ(1997)
2.6. Dietary Intake and Expenditure of Footballers
From studies into the dietary intake and energy expenditure of football players,
it has been established that best practice is not always followed amongst most
professional footballers. It has been established that player energy intake
ranges from 11 MJ (Maughan, 1997) to 15.7 MJ d-1 (Bangsbo, 1994a), with
bangsbo (1994b) recommending 21.5% energy from fat 61.5% from CHO and
14% from protein.
2.7. Nutrients for Football Players
2.7.1. Carbohydrate
According to F- MARC Nutrition for football published by FIFA (2010)
carbohydrate is an important fuel for exercise but the body can store enough to
last for only one day of hard training. The player’s everyday eating and drinking
plan therefore needs to provide enough carbohydrate to fuel their training
program and to optimize the recovery of muscle glycogen stores between
workouts. General targets can be provided for carbohydrate needs, based on
the player’s size and the demands of their training program.
Actual needs are specific to the individual, however, and must be fine-tuned to
take account of the total energy needs and specific training goals. It is
important to get feedback from performance in training and match play to
assess whether there is a problem with fuel availability. An inadequate
Carbohydrate intake will lead to early fatigue.
According to clark (1994) When the period between training sessions is less
than about 8 hours (as in pre-season for elite players), carbohydrate intake, in
the form of solids or liquids, should start as soon as practicable after the first
session to maximize the effective recovery time. There may be some advantages
in meeting carbohydrate targets through a series of snacks during the early
recovery phase., American Dietetic Association(2009), Dietitians of Canada,
and the American College of Sports Medicine position paper on nutrition and
athletic performance recommends for athletes to consume 6 to 10 grams of
carbohydrates per kilogram of body weight each day, whereas some sources set
the minimum recommended value at approximately 5 grams of carbohydrates
per kilogram of body weight per day. In order to determine the specific amount
of carbohydrates required to support an athlete’s energy requirements, several
factors such as gender, type of sport, and environmental conditions have to be
taken into consideration (ADA, 2009).
2.7.2. Protein
According to F- MARC Nutrition for football published by FIFA (2010) protein
has been considered a key nutrient for sporting success by athletes of all eras
and in all sports. Protein plays a key role in the adaptations that take place in
response to training. Amino acids from proteins form building blocks for the
manufacture of new tissue, including muscle, and the repair of old or damaged
tissue. They are also the building blocks for hormones and enzymes that
regulate metabolism and other body functions. Protein provides a small source
of fuel for the exercising muscle.
Dietary surveys show that most players who eat enough to meet their energy
needs already consume diets that provide protein intakes above 1.2-1.6
g/kg/d, even without the use of protein supplements. Therefore, most players
do not need to be encouraged or educated to increase their protein intakes.
Rather, anyone who consumes adequate energy intake from a variety of
nutrient-rich foods should be confident of meeting their protein needs,
including any increases that could arise from high-level training Players most
at risk of failing to meet their protein needs are those who severely restrict their
energy intake for long periods or who lack dietary variety. An adequate energy
intake is also important in promoting protein balance or increasing protein
retention.
Protein recommendations for athletes differ depending on the level at which the
athlete trains and what type of sport the athlete is involved in, such as
endurance vs. strength sport (Lamon, 2000). According to the most recent
DRIs, the general protein recommendation for all adults (excluding pregnant
and lactating women), active or sedentary, is 0.8 grams per kilogram of body
weight per day (ADA, 2009).
2.7.3. Fat
According to F- MARC Nutrition for football published by FIFA (2010) fat is a
very important and necessary part of a player daily dietary intake. Out of the
macronutrients, it provides the greatest amount of energy per gram, and
provides essential nutrients such as fat-soluble vitamins, D, A, K, and E and
essential fatty acids. Dietary Guidelines for Americans (2005) recommend fat
intake to make up between 20-35% of total calories with the majority of fat
coming from polyunsaturated and monounsaturated sources, less than 10%
coming from saturated sources, and minimal amount coming from trans fatty
acids.
An individual’s body fat stores represent a lifetime history of the balance
between energy intake and energy expenditure. Fat is the major energy store in
the body, and is an efficient way to store excess energy for use in times of need.
A player will perform best when the amount of body fat is within his or her
individual optimum range. This will vary between individuals, and will also
vary across a player’s career, so there is no single value that is ideal and less is
not always better. If the body fat stores fall too low, health will suffer. If body
fat stores are too high, the player will be slowed down by having to carry
unnecessary additional weight. Excess body fat is also a health risk. It is
important, therefore that players manage their food intake and energy output
to achieve an optimum body size and body composition. (Practical guide to
eating and drinking for health and performance 2005)
2.7.4. Vitamins and Minerals
Hard training and match play place a heavy stress on the body, but good food
choices can reduce the risk of harm. Adequate intakes of energy, protein, iron,
copper, manganese, magnesium, selenium, sodium, zinc, and vitamins A, C, E,
B6, and B12 are particularly important to health and performance. These
nutrients, as well as others, are best obtained from a varied diet based largely
on nutrient-rich foods such as vegetables, fruits, beans, legumes, grains, lean
meats, fish, dairy products, and unsaturated oils. Dietary surveys show that
most players are able to meet the recommended intakes for vitamins and
minerals by eating everyday foods. Those at risk of sub-optimal intakes of these
micronutrients include:

players who restrict their energy intake, especially over long periods, to
meet weight loss goals

players whose diets lack variety and who eat a lot of foods with a poor
nutrient-density
The best way to correct this situation is to seek advice from a qualified sports
nutrition expert such as a sports dietitian. When food intake cannot be
adequately improved – for example, when the player is travelling in a country
with a limited food supply - or if an individual is found to be suffering from a
lack of a particular vitamin or mineral, then supplementation may be
warranted. This should be undertaken with the advice of a qualified sports
nutrition expert. In general, a broad range multivitamin/mineral supplement is
the best choice to support a restricted food intake, although targeted nutrient
supplements may be necessary to correct an established nutrient deficiency
(e.g. iron deficiency) Mauguan RJ(1997).
2.7.5. Fluid
Proper hydration and athletic performance goes hand in hand. It is vital for
athletes to consume adequate amounts of fluids before, during, and after
exercise to optimize athletic performance, maintain health, and avoid
dehydration and heat related injuries (ADA, 2009). If an athlete loses >2% of
body weight through fluid loss, dehydration occurs which can impair athletic
performance, cognitive performance, and place an athlete at greater risk of
experiencing heat syncope, heat exhaustion, and even heat stroke (Nichols et
al., 2005, Sawka et al., 2007). To help prevent dehydration and protect athletes
from heat illness the American Dietetic Association, Dietitians of Canada, and
the American College of Sports Medicine position paper on nutrition and
athletic performance (ADA, 2009) established fluid intake recommendations for
athletes before, during and after exercise. It is recommended that individuals
drink 5 to 7ml per kilogram of body weight of water or sports drink prior to
engaging in physical activity (at least 4 hours before) (ADA, 2009). Also, they
need to consume16 ounces of water or a sports drink 1 hour before physical
activity (davies, cooke and king1997)). During exercise, several factors
influence the hydration status of an athlete, including the following: the type of
exercise, duration, intensity level, environmental conditions, and individual’s
sweat rate (ADA, 2009); thus, the amount and rate of fluid to be consumed
should be estimated based on individual athletes’ needs and specific
environmental conditions in which the exercise takes place (ADA, 2009). In
general, it is recommended for an individual to consume 4 to 8 ounces of fluid
every 15 to 20 minutes of activity and if activity lasts longer than 1 hour,
athletes are encouraged to consume a beverage that contains 6% to 8%
carbohydrate, sodium, and potassium in order to provide energy and replace
electrolytes loss through sweat (ADA, 2009). After exercise, it is recommended
for individuals to consume 16 to 24 ounces of fluid for every pound lost of total
body weight (prior to exercise) from sweat loss (ADA, 2009).
Players should limit dehydration during training and matches by drinking
water or a sports drink. Obvious opportunities to drink during a match include
warm-up and at half time. During training, the coach or manager should
organize drink breaks according to the weather and intensity of the session.
Training allows opportunities for players to get a feel for sweat rates and fluid
needs so that drink practices can be adjusted accordingly (see box). It is not
necessary to drink enough to match sweat loss, but the amount of dehydration
should normally be limited to a loss of less than about 2% of body weight (i.e.
1.0 kg for 50 kg person, 1.5 kg for a 75 kg person, and 2 kg for a 100 kg
person).
The negative effects of dehydration on high intensity performance are greater in
warm environments, so drinking practices in these conditions should be
upgraded to reduce the overall fluid deficit. This may include drinking at the
side-line when match play is interrupted, or having extra drink breaks during
training sessions.
There should never be a need to drink more than the sweat loss so that weight
is gained during exercise. This will not help performance and is likely to cause
gut discomfort Sawka MW (1999).
2.7.6. Fluids and Their Importance
The Official U.S. Youth Soccer Coaching Manual (2002:76) states that, at a
level of only 1-2% dehydration, a young football/soccer player will start to feel
prematurely tired or fatigued. In addition to this, Foundation Soccer Coaching
Manual (2008:248) explains that, dehydration, the loss of body water, impairs
exercise performance and increase the risk of heat injury.
Sweat losses will depends on a number of factors including body weight,
genetic predisposition, protective cloth in, the environment, the intensity and
duration of the exercise. Research has shown that sweat rates can range
between 0.5-2.0 liters per hour over a range of different sports in different
environment (Bergeron, 2003).
Therefore, at rest players should drink adequate amount of water in order to
control their body temperature during training, for eliminate of waste products
from metabolism and for energy production. Moreover, the Official U.S. Youth
Soccer Coaching Manual (2002:76) recommends that drinking before, during,
and after a game of football/soccer as follows:
-
Before a training session, drink 2 cups of fluid one hour prior to playing.
-
During a training session, make an effort to drink 0.5 cup of fluid every
15-20 minutes of training or play time.
-
After training or at the end of the training session, drink immediately
and often until urine color is very light yellow to clear.
2.8. Timing of Diet
2.8.1. Diet before Match/Training
According to Clyde Willimas and Luis Serratosa (2006) sited planning a
nutritional strategy for match day begins by first knowing the time and location
of the match. Thereafter, the team nutritionist can work out how much time is
available for meals and then recommend their composition bearing in mind the
culinary likes and dislikes of the players.
What players should eat on match day is a frequently asked question in sports
nutrition. The recommendation from the available evidence is that players
should eat a high-carbohydrate meal about 3 h before the match. This may be
breakfast when the matches are played around midday, lunch for late
afternoon matches, and an early dinner when matches are played late in the
evening. The combination of a high-carbohydrate pre-match meal and sports
drink, ingested during the match, results in a greater exercise capacity than a
high-carbohydrate meal alone. There is evidence to suggest that there are
benefits to a pre-match meal that is composed of low-glycamic index (GI)
carbohydrate foods rather than high-GI foods. A low- GI pre-match meal
results in feelings of satiety for longer and produces a more stable blood
glucose concentration than after a high-GI meal.
The two key nutrients important before exercise are water and carbohydrate.
Importance
of carbohydrate-rich foods that can easily be eaten as an early
morning, mid-morning, afternoon or early evening pre-exercise meal include.
• Raise blood sugar
• Protect glycogen stores
• Provide an immediate form of easy, accessible fuel.
In order to sustain for prolonged period of physical exercise (activity), players
should eat much amount of carbohydrate foods than proteins and fats because
carbohydrate is an immediate source of energy. In relation to this, MacLaren D.
expresses, in Reilly T. (1996:114) that the most important aspects of precompetition meals are to elevate the body’s carbohydrate stores, ensure
hydration and yet provide satisfaction for the player.
However, while eating (taking) carbohydrate foods before training it is
important to eat three hours before the training session. Moreover, he states
that; soccer/football players should leave at list a 3-hour interval between a
full meal and competition in order to minimize gastrointestinal problems such
as nausea and a feeling of fullness.
According to the official U.S. Youth Soccer Coaching Manual (2002:71) the two
key nutrients important before training or competition are carbohydrate and
water. More specifically, as sited in Reilly T. (1996:112) explains that; the meal
should be high in carbohydrates, preferably complex carbohydrates such as
bread, cereals, pasta, rice, potatoes, fruits and vegetables.
Most players appreciate the need to rest and eat well during the days prior to
an important match, but questions arise regarding how much to eat, what type
of food and when is the best time for the pre-game meal.
Players who start a game with low glycogen stores are likely to end up being
substituted before the end of the game. Attention should also be given to
optimizing water and salt levels in the body. However, during the 2-4 days prior
to a competition, a player‘s need for protein and fat, as well as most other
nutrients, typically does not increase above the levels that are recommended
for normal moderate level training. Nutrition on match day is all about
performance and this is often where tailor-made sports foods can help to meet
special match needs more practically than everyday foods.
2.5.2. During Match/Training Diet
Fluid loss as little as 2% of body weight (1.4kg in 70 kg athlete) has been
shown to decrease endurance performance (casa et al,2003) Depletion of fuel
stores can be an issue for football matches, especially for players in mobile
positions or with a running game style. High carbohydrate strategies – fuelling
up for the game and consuming extra carbohydrate during the match – have
been shown to enhance performance in such players.
Better intake of fluid and fuel during a game may not only keep players
running further and faster in the second half of a match, but it can also help to
maintain skills and judgment when players would otherwise become fatigued.
Games are often won and lost in the last minutes of the match, and fatigued
players are at increased risk of injury (Sawka MN and Coyle EF 1994.
The use of commercial sports drinks with a carbohydrate content of about 48% (4-8 g/100 ml) allows carbohydrate and fluid needs to be met
simultaneously in most events. The intake of carbohydrate that is generally
associated with performance benefits is 20-60 g per hour. Sodium should be
included in fluids consumed during exercise lasting longer than 1-2 hours or
by individuals during any event that stimulates high salt losses. You can
recognize “salty sweaters” by the salt rings on their clothes at the end of a hard
session on a hot day. Players who lose a lot of salt may be more prone to
muscle cramps. Adding a little extra salt to food and drinks and using the
higher sodium version of sports drinks may reduce the risk of cramping for
these players, but probably does not benefit other players.
Caffeine is present in many commonly available drinks (tea, coffee, cola, etc)
and sports foods (e.g. gels, some sports drinks) and can enhance endurance
during prolonged exercise. This benefit can be obtained with the relatively
small doses of caffeine that are commonly consumed by people of various
cultures (e.g. about 2-3 mg/kg bodyweight as found in a 1-2 cups of brewed
coffee or 750-1500 ml of a cola beverage (Williams and Seratossa 2006).
150ml of non carbonated electrolyte (and protein if possible)
containing sports drink consumed every 15 min and small
selection
of
salt
containing
snacks
at
half
time.
www.scientific-football.com
2.8.3. Post Match/ Training Diet
Recovery after exercise is part of the preparation for the next exercise session,
and replacement of sweat losses is an essential part of this process. Both water
and salts lost in sweat must be replaced. Aim to drink about 1.2-1.5 liters of
fluid for each kg of weight lost in training or matches. Drinks should contain
sodium (the main salt lost in sweat) if no food is eaten at this time, but most
meals will contain adequate amounts of salt. Sports drinks that contain
electrolytes can be helpful, but many foods can also supply the salt that is
needed. A little extra salt may be added to meals when sweat losses are high,
but salt tablets should be used with caution.
When players work hard, they lose sweat – in a game on a hot day, sweat
losses may reach 3 liters. On a cold day, though, some players will lose very
little sweat. Every player’s hydration needs are different and will vary with the
weather over the season. Just as general training and competition strategies
should be tailored for individual athletes in accordance with their unique needs
and preferences, so should their drinking and eating choices during exercise.
Players, coaches, and trainers should fine tune these recommendations to
identify their own winning formula.
The major considerations after competition are to replenish carbohydrate and
fluid losses. As already mentioned, it is important to consume carbohydrates
as soon as possible after exercise in order to achieve a quick and complete
glycogen restoration (Don MacLaren, sited in Reilly T. (1996)).
In this regard the Official U.S. Youth Soccer Coaching Manual (2002:75)
indicates that, what is eaten after exercise determines how quickly the young
athlete recovers and is able to perform either the next day or during a
consecutive game. First carbohydrate rich foods eaten within the first two
hours after intense physical activity restore glycogen, the body’s storage form of
carbohydrate. The second nutrient to play attention after exercise is protein. By
eating adequate protein after exercise young football/soccer players give
themselves an advantage in two ways. First, they are eating appropriate
nutrients (amino acids) to help repair the wear and tear on their muscle cells
and secondly, they are eating the nutrient that will promote growth of muscle
cells. The combination of carbohydrate and protein after exercise is the key
formula for optimal recovery along with adequate fluid.
Players should aim to replace 50% of their body weight losses within 2
hours of finishing the game using a 2 liter 50:50 combination of water
and electrolytes consumed in small amounts to enhance fluid retention.
www.scientific-football.com
2.9. Supplement for Players
Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994 defined the term dietary
supplement: dietary supplement is a product taken by mouth that contains a
"dietary ingredient" intended to supplement the diet. The "dietary ingredients"
in these products may include: vitamins, minerals, herbs or other botanicals,
amino acids, and substances such as enzymes, organ tissues, glandular, and
metabolites. Dietary supplements can also be extracts or concentrates, and
may be found in many forms such as tablets, capsules, soft gels, gel caps,
liquids, or powders.
Training for and playing football can markedly increase the need for macroand micronutrients. At a professional level, with often sustained periods of two
matches per week, interspersed with training sessions, this increase can be
substantial. However, this need can be covered adequately by dietary
management, and establishing good eating practices to achieve the consistent
intake of a well-balanced and healthy diet should be the primary nutritional
strategy to support optimum performance in football (Burke et al., 2006). Such
practices include manipulation of the quantity and type of foods to meet
fluctuating energy needs, the selection of food sources to provide adequate
carbohydrate, protein, and micronutrients and, last but not least, the specific
timing of intake of nutrients to facilitate recovery between exercise and promote
adaptations to training. (Hespel P. R J Maughan. PL Greenhaff 1996).
Coaches, physicians, parents, and others who are engaged in the training and
education process of footballers must pay particular attention to developing
adequate eating habits in players, rather than promoting the use of dietary
supplements to compensate for presumed dietary shortcomings. This is
particularly true for young players, who should be able to develop their football
talent by the optimum combination of training and diet. It is most doubtful
that the addition of dietary supplements could facilitate the expression of
football talent. (Hawley et al., 2006; Williams & Serratosa, 2006).
Nevertheless,
appropriate
ingestion
of
some
specific
supplements
in
conjunction with appropriate training can contribute to enhanced performance
in foot-ball. At its most basic, the most important measure of performance in
football is the number of goals scored versus the number of goals conceded,
but there are no research data to show that nutritional supplements can
improve this balance. But there is sound scientific evidence that some
supplements can affect factors that determine football performance. The so
called “ergogenic” effects of these supplements, however, are generally small,
and thus probably relevant only in top-class footballers where extremely small
differences in performance can make the difference between loss and victory,
with potentially major financial and career implications. To counterbalance the
strong marketing pressures generated by the supplement industry, it is
important that players are well educated about effective procedures for
supplement intake. It is also important to recognize that responses to
supplements vary among players, and supplements that work for one player
may not necessarily work for another. Furthermore, the use of supplements
must always be tested in training before being applied in competition, to avoid
unexpected side effects. Each individual player must consider whether the
small benefit obtained from supplement ingestion outweighs the associated
risk. Hespel p RJ Mauguan, pL Greenhaff (1996).
The use of dietary supplements is widespread in football, but players should
not expect benefits from most of these supplements. Few of the products used
by athletes are supported by a sound research base and some may even be
harmful to the player. All players should look carefully at the risks and rewards
of individual supplements before trying them.
Where there is a demonstrated deficiency of an essential vitamin or mineral,
this can usually be corrected by changes to the diet. Where an increased intake
from food is not possible, a supplement may be helpful, but the use of
supplements does not compensate for poor food choices and an inadequate
diet. Many players ignore the need for caution in supplement use and take
supplements in doses that are not necessary, and may even be harmful.
According to Hespel, G Grejory (1996) thousands of supplements, mostly
pseudo-supplements, are available for purchase. To recognize supplements
that are potentially effective and relevant to football, three requirements have
been identified:
1. The supplement must work, which means that it must influence
physical/physiological,
mental,
or
health
factors
that
determine
performance in football.
2. The supplement must not cause any adverse health effects.
3. The supplement must be legal—that is, it must not contain any
substance named in the banned substance list, or alternatively a
substance that could result in a positive doping test.
Major supplement in football are: caffeine, ephedra, creatine, glutamine etc.
The market for nutritional supplements has become a multi-billion dollar
business, spreading supplements worldwide. Unfortunately, in many cases, the
labeling of products does not correspond with the actual content of the
product. Some products contain less active ingredients than indicated on the
label, or no active substance at all (Green, Catlin, & Starcevic, 2001). A typical
example of such malpractice is the so-called “creatine-serum”, which after
several years of aggressive marketing and sales was recently demonstrated by
several independent laboratories to contain no cretin (Harris, Almada, Harris,
Dunnett, & Hespel, 2004). On the other hand, products have been found to
contain substances not included on the label or much more active ingredients
than
indicated
on
the
label
(Gurley,
Gardner,
&
Hubbard,
2000;
Parasrampuria, Schwartz, & Petesch, 1998). Most alarming is the finding from
recent field surveys that apparently innocent over-the-counter products that,
according to the label, were supposed to contain only harmless compounds,
contained pharmacological quantities of the anabolic steroid metadienone (De
Cock et al., 2001; Geyer et al., 2004; Parr, Geyer, Reinhart, & Schanzer, 2004).
This indicates that some companies will not hesitate to potentiate the
purported actions of their sports supplements by the addition of dangerous
prescription drugs, a practice that is criminal. Besides conceivable adverse
health effects, the intake of such supplements could result in a positive doping
test. For example, a substantial fraction (10–25%) of a variety of “off-the-shelf”
supplements was found to be contaminated by androgenic prohormones,
including compounds related to testosterone and nandrolone (Geyer et al.,
2004; http://www.dopinginfo.de).
2.10. Alcohol
According to Mauguan (2010) alcohol is not an essential component of a diet. It
is a personal choice whether an adult player consumes alcohol at all. However,
there is no evidence of impairments to health and performance when alcohol is
used sensibly.
Before consuming any alcohol after a match, the player should consume a
meal or snack to replace carbohydrate, and protein. This snack or meal will
start the recovery process. Food intake will also help to reduce the rate of
alcohol absorption and thus reduce the rate of intoxication. Once post-exercise
recovery priorities have been addressed, the player who chooses to drink is
encouraged to do so “in moderation”. Drink-driving education messages in
various countries may provide a guide to sensible and well-paced drinking.
The most important problem associated with the excessive consumption of
alcohol after exercise is that it may disinherit the player and distract them from
making good choices. Alcohol intoxication may make the player forget about
following sound recovery practices such as appropriate treatment for injuries,
adequate sleep, or optimal eating and drinking. Alcohol may displace
carbohydrate from the diet at a time when restoration of glycogen stores should
be a priority. The need for other important nutrients may be neglected while
the player is consuming large amounts of alcohol, or sleeping off the hangover
next day. An intoxicated athlete often succumbs to high-risk activities leading
to accidents, violence, or other anti-social behavior. Negative outcomes range
from the tarnishing of a reputation to serious (and sometimes fatal) injury.
The player should certainly avoid a heavy intake of alcohol on the night before
a match. It appears unlikely that the intake of 1-2 standard drinks will have
negative effects in most habitual drinkers.
According to Michael gold (1993) alcohol drinking is not advisable for
footballers because the body can absorbed it slowly and it impeded
rehydration, make players forget about following sound recovery practices such
as treatment for in injuries, adequate sleep or optimal eating and drinking
According to F- MARC Nutrition for football published by FIFA (2010) football is
a global sport played in every country in the world. Those who play may face
difficult challenges when the environment is unfavorable. At high altitudes or
at extremes heat and humidity the nature of the game changes and players
face different challenges.
Games played at very high altitude (4000 m or even higher as happens in some
parts of South America) are seriously affected by the altitude, and most sea
level natives will encounter health problems even at rest at this height. Acute
exposure to high altitude normally results in nausea, headache, and general
malaise: not what you want before a big game. Many games, however, are
played at more moderate altitudes which are nevertheless sufficient to affect
performance in most players. Effects on endurance become apparent at about
1800-2000 m, though some sensitive individuals will be affected before this.
High altitude results in a loss of appetite, but there are unlikely to be major
implications for most players at the moderate altitude where most games are
played. Hydration is important and players should be sure to drink plenty of
fluids throughout the day. Because a move to a higher altitude may increase
oxidative damage during exercise, athletes should ensure that their diet is rich
in fruits and vegetables to provide essential antioxidants. For longer stays,
such as tournaments, there will be an increased rate of red blood cell
production, so the diet should contain plenty of iron-rich foods. It is worth
checking iron status by way of a blood test before going to altitude.
2.11. Cultural and Regional Issues in Football
According to Maugan (2010) football is a truly international sport, and great
players have emerged from every country in the world. Teams from different
parts of the world will face different nutritional challenges, but none of these
presents an insurmountable problem. A little attention paid to nutrition will
pay big dividends in terms of better performance and better health.
Most teams will contain players from different ethnic, cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds. On the field, they all play together and share the same
aims and ambitions, but at home they are likely to have very different eating
habits. Even though they all have broadly similar nutrition goals, an infinite
variety of different food combinations can be chosen to meet their nutritional
goals. All the essential nutrients can be obtained from normal foods, and
variety is a key to meeting nutrient needs, but many different foods can be
interchanged. Good sources of carbohydrate may be bread, rice, pasta, potato,
couscous, or maize porridge. Protein will be provided by many different foods;
the obvious foods are meat, fish, eggs and dairy products, but bread, cereals,
pasta, lentils, and beans are only a few of the other excellent sources of
protein. The fruits and vegetables that are commonly available will differ from
region to region, although many staples or favorites are exported around the
globe. Our eating habits are much more international than they once were, and
players can enjoy foods from different countries of the world.
The vegetarian player need not be at any disadvantage. These players, though,
must be more aware of the food choices that they make. If there are no animal
foods in the diet, then a Vitamin B12 supplement may be necessary. Players
who avoid red meat must pay special attention to ensuring that the diet
contains enough iron from plant sources, and this should be combined with
other foods that aid iron absorption:
There may be special circumstances that cause athletes to change their normal
training and dietary habits. Muslim players avoid food and fluid intake during
daylight hours throughout the holy month of Ramadan. This can mean that
changes to training times are necessary to ensure that adequate hydration is
maintained, especially in very hot weather and at high latitudes. Where
matches take place during Ramadan, players should be aware that prior
preparation is necessary to ensure good liver and muscle glycogen stores and
good hydration. Performance will not necessarily suffer if the player is well
prepared (F.MARC Nutrition for football 2010)
2.12. Variables Influence Nutrition Attitude and Interest
2.12.1. Food Attitude and Interest
Food attitudes are formed early in child hood and are rein forced by a diversity
of familial, social and cultural influences which makes food habits one of the
most resilient of all habits in acculturation contexts (Rozin, 1990 Rozin and
Schiller, 1986 as cited by Abate 2001).
It is possible to discriminate between the affective Vs cognitive bases of food
attitudes (Dube and Cantin, 2000, Letarte, Dube and troche, 1997; Shiv and
fedora Khin, 1999 as cited by Abate 2001). In the context of food, affective
bases or origins, pertain to the sensations, feelings and emotion one
experienced in responses to food like pleasant taste and mouth feel, the
pleasure of sharing it with friends, or the emotion that arise from its
consumption. By contrast, cognitive bases contain positive and negative
attributes and consequences of a more functional or symbolic nature, like
nutritional value, convenience or health consequences.
Eating attitude is beliefs, thoughts, feelings and behaviors towards food
(American dietetic association).
2.12.2. Culture
Linton define cultures as the way of life of a society that is, culture provides the
social members with “an indispensable guide in all affairs of life”
Culture and Food Interest
Everyone seems to believe that the determinants of food related interest are
complex and that a multi disciplinary approach is needed.
Dickens D (1965) presented four concepts (culture. social, personal and
situational) under which the determinants of food practices should be
categorized.
Dickens viewed cultural causes resulted from environmental condition such as
climate, technology, geography and food availability. Social determinants
include friends, relatives, and family members: personal factors included age,
education and psychological characteristics, situational factors were income
and employment of home maker. Leininger conceptualized that difference in
food practices are related to how people use food with in a culture people use
food for nourishment, to express friendliness and maintain interpersonal
relationships, to cope with stress and tension, to enhance sport performance
and for religious and creative expressions.
2.12.3. Fasting
Fasting is the voluntary abstention from eating and drinking. Is an integral
part of all of the world’s.
Fasting is defined as a partial or total abstention from all foods, or a select
abstention
from
prohibited
foods.
As
a
potential
non-pharmacological
intervention for improving health and increasing longevity, fasting has been the
subject of numerous scientific investigations.
Fasting and Sport
Most sports men observe an overnight fast on a daily basis and the human
body copes well with short duration fasting. Periodic fasting is widely practiced
for cultural, religious or health reasons. Fasting may take many different
forms. Prolonged restriction of food and fluid is harmful to health and
performance and it is often automatically assumed that intermittent fasting will
lead to decrements in exercise performance. Players who choose to fast during
training or competition may therefore be at a disadvantage. Both, total fat and
total protein intake decrease during fasting periods, while total carbohydrate
intake does not change in terms of vitamins and minerals intake, both
riboflavin and calcium intake decrease during fasting periods. (The Impact of
Religious Fasting on Human Health Nutrition Journal 2010).
Prolonged periods of training in the fasted state may not allow optimum
adaption of muscle and other tissues. (R.J Maughan Bartogiz, Dvorok J,
etal,1997)
Effect of Ramadan Fasting on Players Nutritional Intake
The timing of food and liquid in take depends on the times of sun set and sun
rise during the month of Ramadan.
Aside from macronutrients, vitamins and minerals are generally consumed in
similar amounts during Ramadan
During Christian fasting periods faster abstain from fish and olive oil, dairy
products, eggs and meat during these periods diet consists largely of bread,
fruits, ligaments, nuts, seafood and vegetables.
Daily kcal intake may or may not decrease during the fasting periods. Interms
of percentage of energy consumption, there appears to be a consensus
Christian fasting increase carbohydrate intake and decrease fat intake. Also
the amount of protein intake relative to carbohydrate and fat intake may or
may not decrease during fasting when expressed as an absolute amount
(Mauguan RJ 2010).
2.12.4. Age
Age of players influence the food interest and attitude of players towards
nutrition the factors may be because of technology, economic, and social
changes in a society. With increasing age, players reduced fat intake and
increase carbohydrate intake (Garcial 1975, etal)
CHAPTER THREE
Research Methodology
3.1. Research method
The present study employed quantitative research design. A quantitative design
helps to make numerical description of player’s interest and attitude towards
nutrition
3.2. Study Site
The study was conducted in saint George foot ball club players
3.3. Sample and Sampling
There are 14 clubs in Ethiopian primer league which are from different parts of
the country. All these clubs have their own goals to be champions.
3.4. Sampling Procedures
For this study saint George football club is selected as a sample. All players in
the selected club were taken as the population of this research.
3.5. Instrument
A questionnaire was developed for this study to collect data. The instrument is
a likert-type five point scales to measure relationship between players
age,players playing experience and players playing position with nutiritional
attitude and interest with a response category ranging from strongly agree (like,
recommend) to strongly disagree (like, do not recommend). The five point scales
are given the scale values in such a way that strongly agree =5 agree =
undecided =3, disagree=2 and strongly disagree=1 for positively stated items
and the reverse for negatively stated items. First the instrument was prepared
in English and to make the items easily understandable for the players except
foreign players and coach it was translated in to Amharic language. The scale
includes 25 items for players and 16 items for coaches.
To establish the face validity of the instrument it was given to two experts in
the area (two of them are MA holders in department of sport science). The
experts checked the accuracy and appropriateness of the item the current
study. The reliability result of the study based on Cronbach’s Alpha, indicated
that the reliability of the instrument, that is, players interest and attitude scale
is =0.766 as the result indicates the instrument has a good reliability.
3.6 Data Collection Procedures
After a letter of recommendation from the department of sport science was
presented to the club manger (administrator) and permission was approved,
the researcher explained the purpose of the research to the club administrator
and discussed with them how and when to address the players in training and
camps.
The researcher agreed with the club administrator to distribute and collect
questionnaire finally the researcher collected the returned questionnaires from
the club administrators.
3.7. Methods of Data Analysis
Quantitative method was employed for analyzing the data. Descriptive statistics
was used to investigate the scores of player’s interest and attitude towards
nutrition. Correlation was used to analyze whether players demographic
characteristics (their age, player playing position, and playing experience) were
correlated with their interest and attitude toward nutrition. T-test was used to
examine the mean interest and attitude difference between difference groups of
players. For example players who have cultural influence and those who have
no influence, and players who have fasting habit and those who do not have
fasting habits.
Finally, one way analysis of variance was employed to check
whether there is a significant difference in mean interest and attitude of
players in different groups of age, playing experience and playing position.
Alpha value ∝=0.05 and ∝=0.01 was used to test the significance tests
employed in this study. The variables were examined using a standard
statistical software programs (spss version 20).
CHAPTER FOUR
Presentation and analysis of data
This chapter presents the data and the results of statistical analysis. This
includes the descriptive statistics, correlation among variables, t-tests and one
way analysis of variance.
Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
Variables
N
%
16-20
3
12%
21-15
17
68%
26-30
5
20%
Goal keepers
3
12%
Defensive
8
32%
Midfield
10
40%
Attacking
4
16%
7
28%
3-4
10
40%
5-6
7
28%
>7
1
4%
Yes
4
16%
No
21
84%
Habits of fasting
Yes
15
60%
-
No
10
40%
Age
Position of playing
Experience
in 1-2
club
Cultural influence
As we can see from table 1, the total no of participants for this study is 25
players. From this when we see their age 3(12%) are in the age range of 16-20
years, 17(68%) are in the age range of 21-25 years, and the rest 5(20%) are in
the age range of 26-30 years.
When we see their playing position there are 3(12%) goal keepers, 8(32%)
defensive, 10(40%) midfield and 4 (16%) are attacking players when we see
their experience of playing in the club 7(28%), 10 (4%), 7(28%), and 1(4%) are
in the experience range of 1-2, 3-4,5-6 and 7 and above years. From the total
participants 21(84%) have no cultural influence on its own nutritional interest
and attitude and 4(16%) have cultural influence in its own nutritional interest
and attitude. When we see its experience (habit) in fasting during fasting
season 10(40%) have no fasting habit and 15(60%) players have habits of
fasting in fasting season.
Table 2 Descriptive Statistics of the Scores of Player’s Interest towards
Nutrition
Variable Number
N
Mean
SD
of items
Interest
16
25
67.40
7.071
Minimum Maximum
Possible
possible
Score
score
16
80
As we can see from the above table, the mean of player’s attitude towards
nutrition is 67.4 and the standard deviation is 7.071.
Figure 1: Diagrammatical Representation of Player’s interest towards
Nutrition.
16
48
Minimum
Median
Possible Score
67.40
Mean Score
80
Maximum
possible score
Thus, the gaps from the mean scores to the highest scores are reaching the
area which needs to be improved to have more positive attitude.
Table 3 Descriptive Statistics of the Scores of Player’s Attitude towards
Nutrition
Variable Number
N
Mean
SD
of items
Attitude
11
25
40.20
5.701
Minimum Maximum
Possible
possible
Score
score
11
55
As we can see from the above table, the mean of players’ attitude towards
nutrition is 40.20 and the standard deviation is 5.701
Figure 2 Diagrammatical Representation of Player’s Attitude towards
Nutrition
11
Minimum
22
Median
40.20
Mean Score
Possible Score
55
Maximum
possible score
Based on the figure above the gaps from the mean scores to the highest scores
is the area which requires improvement to have more positive attitude.
Relationships among Variable
Identifying the correlation among players interest, attitude, age, and years
playing in the club towards nutrition of players by using Pearson’s product
movement correlation.
Table 4 Correlations among Players Interest, Attitude Age and Years
Playing in the Club
Variables
2
1, interest
0.05, **
2. Attitude
3. age
4. Years playing
in the club
**correlation is significant at 0.05 level
3
.157
.097
4
-.197
.031
-.267
As we can see the above table, players nutritional interest has a positive
correlation with their attitude towards nutrition. The correlation between them
was statistically significant.
The other correlation result in table 4 is interest with player’s age has a
negative and weak correlation with their nutrition. But the correlation between
them was not statistically significant.
The other correlation result in table 4 is interest with players playing
experience has a negative and weak correlation with their interest towards
nutrition. The result of correlation between attitude with player’s age and
correlation between attitudes with player’s experience of playing shows weak
positive correlation.
The last correlation result is player’s age with player’s experience of playing,
and it shows week negative correlation.
Results of Independent sample test (T- test. two groups)
In this section comparison was made between players who have cultural
influence and have no influence and players who have fasting habit and player
that do not have fasting habit in regard to its own nutritional interest and
attitude towards nutrition. To check these in dependent sample t-test were
computed and the results are presented in the following tables.
Table 5- Data and Result of Independent Sample T-Test on Players
Interest towards Nutrition between Players Who Have Cultural Influence
and Those Who Don’t Have Cultural Influence
Having
cultural
influence
in
interest
Yes
No
Not significant at
N
Mean
4
67.50
21
67.38
0.05 level, of tailed
Std.dor
T
Df
Sig
5,000
7.5000
-.030
23
.976
As we can see the result in table 5 the mean difference between players who
have cultural influence in its nutritional interest and those who does not have
cultural influence in their own nutritional interest is not statistically
significant.
Table 6 Data and Result of Independent Sample T-Test on Players Attitude
towards Nutrition between Players Who Have Cultural Influence and Those
Who Don’t Have Cultural Influence
Having cultural influence N
in interest
Yes
4
No
21
Mean
Std.dor
39.50
40.33
5.196
5.902
T
Df
Sig
23
.975
Not significant at 0.05 level of tailed
As we can see the result in table 6 the mean difference between players who
have cultural influence in its nutritional attitude and those who have no
cultural influence is not statistically significant.
Table 7 Data and Result of Independent Sample T-Test on Players Interest
towards Nutrition between Players Having Habits of Fasting In Fasting
Season and Those Who Have Not Habits of Fasting
Fasting
N
Mean
SD
T
Df
Sig
Yes
15
67.07
5.922
.283
23
.780
No
10
67.90
8.850
habit
interest
Not significant of 0.05 level 2 tailed
As we can see the result in table 7, the difference between players who have
habits of fasting and those who have no habits of fasting in nutritional interest
is not statistically significant.
Table 8 Data and Result of Independent Sample T-Test on Player’s
Attitude towards Nutrition between Players Having Habits of Fasting in
Fasting Season and Those Who Have Not Habits of Fasting
Fasting
N
Mean
SD
T
Df
Sig
Yes
15
39.80
4.709
-.422
23
.677
No
10
40.80
7.177
habit
in
attitude
Not statistically significant at 0.05 level
As the result shows in table 8 the difference between players who have habits
of fasting and those who have no habits of fasting in nutritional attitude is not
statistically significant
Results of One Way Analysis of Variance
To make it suitable for the one way analysis of variance player’s age, position of
playing and its experience was categorized into different groups.
Based on their age players were grouped into five years interval groups.
Table 9 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Scores of Players Interest
towards In Its Nutrition Attitude in Age Categories
Age categories
Interest
Group
Range of age in years
N
Mean
SD
1
16-20
3
70.33
3.786
2
21-25
17
65.47
7.400
3
26-30
5
72.20
4.764
As we can see the result in table 9 players in third group holds the highest
mean interests while those in second group holds the lowest mean interest. The
first group and the third group mean result is higher than the second group.
From this we can understand that an increment in player’s age does not show
either a constant increment or decrement in their interest of players towards
nutrition
Table 10: Result of the One Way Analysis Of Variance of Players Interest
in Different Groups of Age Categories towards Players Nutrition
ANOVA
Interest
Source
Sum
of Df
squares
Between
Mean
F
Sig
2.257
.128
square
204.295
2
102.149
995.702
22
45.259
1200,000
24
24
groups
Within
groups
Total
Not significant al 0.05 level
In this table interest is taken as dependent variable and player’s age is taken
as independent variable. There is no significant mean difference in their
interest towards nutrition.
Interest attitude of players towards nutrition is (F-2, 22) = 2.257, p=.128
Table 11 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Scores of Player’s Attitude
in Nutrition in Age Categories
Age categories
attitude
Group
Range of age in years
N
Mean
SD
1
16-20
3
38.67
5.033
2
21-25
17
40.29
5.861
3
26-30
5
40.80
6.535
As we can see the result in table 11 the general trend of the group is consistent
that means the first group has lower mean attitude than the second ,the
second group has lower mean attitude than the third group From this we can
understand that an increment in players age show constant increment in
players attitude towards nutrition.
Table 12 Result of the One Way Analysis of Variance of Player’s Attitude
in Different Groups of Age Categories towards Player’s Nutrition
Attitude
Source
Sum
of Df
Mean
squares
F
Sig
.128
.880
square
Between groups
9.004
2
4.502
Within groups
770.996
22
35.045
Total
780,000
24
In this table attitude is taken as dependent variable and players’ age is taken
as independent variable. There is no significant mean deference in their
attitude toward nutrition.
Attitude of players towards nutrition a is (F-2.722) = .128,p.880)
Descriptive Data of Players in Different Groups of Playing
Positions
Based on their playing position players were grouped in to four groups. Based
on this criterion 3 players are goal keepers, 8 defensive players, 10 midfield
players and 4 players are attackers. The descriptive data of the four groups are
presented in table 13 below.
Table 13 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Scores on Player’s Interest
towards Nutrition in Different Playing Position
Playing Position
Interest
Group
Playing position
N
Mean
SD
1
goal keeper
3
69.67
12.342
2
Defensive player
8
69.75
4.334
3
Midfield player
10
64.70
6.783
4
Attacking player
4
67.75
8.500
As table 13 shows defensive players have high mean interest result than the
other and midfield players have low mean interest result than goal keeper,
defensive and attacking players.
Table14 Result of the One Way Analysis of Variance of Players Interest in
Different Groups of Playing Position towards Nutrition
ANOVA
Source
Sum
of
Df
Mean
square
F
Sig
.872
.471
square
Between
132.983
3
44.328
Within
1067.017
21
50.810
Total
1200,000
24
Not significant at 0.05 level
As the one way analysis of variance in table 14 above which takes interest as
dependent variable and players playing position as the independent variable
found no significant mean difference in their nutritional interest (F-3,21)= .872,
p=.471).
Table 15 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Scores on Player’s Attitude
towards Nutrition
Playing Position
Interest
Group
Playing position
N
Mean
SD
1
goal keeper
3
43.00
6.245
2
Defensive player
8
41.13
3.796
3
Midfield player
10
38.40
6.398
4
Attacking player
4
40.75
7.500
Table 15 shows players mean result on player’s attitude towards nutrition. As
the data shows goal keepers have high (positive) nutritional attitude towards
the listed recommend nutrition and mid field players show low attitude towards
nutrition.
Table 16 Result of the One Way Analysis of Variance of Player’s Attitude
In Different Groups of Playing Position towards Nutrition
Total Attitude
Source
Sum
ANOVA
of Df
square
Mean
F
Sig
.6275
.607
square
Between
63.975
3
21.325
Within
716.025
21
34.096
Total
780.000
24
Not significant of 0.05 level.
As the one way analysis of variance in table 16 above which takes attitude as
dependent variable and players position of playing as the independent variable
found no significant mean difference in their nutritional attitude
P (3,21).625, p=.607
Table 17 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Scores on Players Interest
towards Nutrition in Different Playing Experience Grouping
Group
Range
of N
Mean
SD
experience
1
1-2
7
71.71
8..580
2
3-4
10
64.10
3.979
3
5-6
7
68.00
4.811
As we can see the result in table 17 players in the first group holds the highest
mean interest, while the third and second holds the lowest mean interest than
the first and the third holds higher mean result than the second respectively.
As we can see the result in table 17 there is no consistent interest different
among groups depends on experience towards nutrition.
Table 18 Result of One Way Analysis of Variance of Players Interest in
Difference Groups of Playing Experiences towards Nutrition
ANOVA
Source
Sum
of Df
Mean
square
F
Sig
1.784
.181
square
Between
243.671
3
81.224
Within
956.329
21
45.539
Total
1200.000
24
No significant at 0.05 level
As the one way analysis of variance in table 18 above which take interest as
dependent variable and players playing position as the independent variable,
found no significant mean difference in their interest (F3,21)=1.784,
p=.181
towards nutrition.
Table 19 Mean and Standard Deviation of the Scores on Player’s Attitude
towards Nutrition in Different Categories of Playing Experience
Group
Range
of N
Mean
Sig
experience
1
1-2
7
41.43
8.580
2
3-4
10
38.50
3.979
3
5-6
7
40.86
4.811
As we can see in the above table 19 players grouping in the first group holds
the highest result on nutritional attitude towards nutrition. But he third and
the second group achieve the lower mean attitude result than the first, the
third holds higher mean attitude score than the second. So the result indicates
there is no continuous and stable attitude different among groups on playing
experience towards nutrition.
Table 20 Result of One Way Analysis Of Variance of Players Attitude in
Difference Playing Position Group towards Nutrition
Total Attitude
ANOVA
Source
Sum
of Df
square
Mean
F
Sig
.551
.653
square
Between
56.929
3
18.976
Within
723.071
21
34.432
Total
780.000
24
Not significant at 0.05 level
As the one way analysis of variance in table 20 above which take attitude as
dependent variable and players playing position as the independent variable,
found no significant mean difference in their attitude (F3,21)=.551,
p=.653
towards nutrition.
Table 21 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents’ (Coaches)
Variables
Age
Educational level
Coaching level
31-35
1
25%
36-40
3
75%
Total
4
Diploma
3
75%
Degree
1
25%
Total
4
Level 1
1
25%
Level 2
2
50%
FIFA level
1
25%
Total
4
As we can see from table 21 the total number of coach participants for this
study is four (4) when we see their age 1(25%) are in the age range of 31-35
years and 3(75%) are in the age range of 36-40 years. When we see their
educational levels there are 3(75%) Diploma holders and 1 degree holders when
we see their coaching level 1(25%) Have level 1 coaching license, 2(50%) are
second levelly of coaches and the rest 1(25%) FIFA coaches’.
Table 22 Descriptive Statistics of the Scores of Coaches Recommendation
towards Players Nutrition Interest
variable
No
of N
Mean
SD
Minimum Maximum
items
Interest
16
possible
4
61.50
3.317
possible
score
score
16
80
As we can see from the above table the mean coach recommendation towards
player’s nutritional interest is 61.50 and the standard deviation is 3.317.
Fig
3
Diagrammatical
Representation
of
Coaches
Recommendation
towards Players Nutritional Interest
16
Minimum
48
Median
61.50
Mean score
possible score
80
Maximum
possible score
Thus, the gaps from the mean scores to the highest scores are the area which
needs to be some improvement to have more positive recommendation.
Relationships among Variables
Identifying the correlation among coaches age, educational level and coaching
level towards recommendation to player’s nutritional interest.
Table 23 Correlations among Coaches’ Age, Educational Level and
Coaching Level
Variable
Recommendation
Age
Educational level
Coaching level
2
-.503
3
-.905
.333
4
-.862
.816
.816
As we can see the above table 23 coaches’ age, educational level and coaching
levels has a negative and weak correlation with their recommendation towards
players interest of nutrients. But the correlation between them was not
statistically significant. The other correlation result in table 23 shows age of
coaches is positively related with educational level and age of coaches has a
positive and strong correlation with Coaching level. (r.816, N=4,p=0.00 2-tailed)
and the correlation between them was statistically significant and the last
correlation in table 23 is the relationship between educational level and
coaching level, as the result coaches educational level has a positive and strong
correlation with their coaching level (r=.816, N=4, p=.000, 2 - tailed).
Discussion
Players Interest and Attitude towards Nutrition
The result of the descriptive statistics of the scores of player’s interest towards
nutrition in table 2 indicates the players mean interest score is just above the
median. This result is clearly shown in figure 1. The result reveals that player’s
interest leans towards positive direction. The result is encouraging but there is
some deal required in player’s interest towards nutrition.
The performance of footballers is enhanced by balanced diet, to become
successful and effective players according to Clark KL(1994) during a 90
minute game players cover around 10km and also undertake different kinds of
movement. According to Mangham (1997) players energy in take ranges from
11mj-15.7mj so to get these and enhance player’s level of performance
Bangsobo (1996) recommends 21.5% from fat, 61.5% from carbohydrate and
14% from protein. According to Clark ( 2003 ) essential range of food for
footballers are grouped into four categories A) meat and meat alternatives:
meat, fish, eggs, beans and nuts B)vegetable and fruits: root and leafy
vegetables, salads, oranges, and banana C)Dairy products: milk, cheese,
yoghurt and D)starchy food: bread, pasta, rice, cereals and potatoes.
The result of the descriptive statistics of the scores of player’s attitude towards
nutrition in table 3 indicates the players mean attitude score is just above the
median. This result is clearly shown in figure 2. The result reveals that player’s
attitude leans towards positive direction. The result is encouraging but it needs
improvement
to
be
more
positive
towards
the
scientific
nutritional
recommendation.
The result of the study is agreed with Williams and Luis Serratosa(2006)
research result. According to William and Luis Serratosa (2006) sited having
positive nutritional attitude, nutritional knowledge, towards scientific nutrition
are important to be effective to reduce injury and to have good endurance.
The nutritional attitude of players towards eating food 3-4 hours before the
game responded negatively.
What players should eat on match day is a frequently asked question in
player’s nutrition. The recommendation from the available evidence is that
players should eat high carbohydrate rich foods about 3-4 hours before the
match. This may be breakfast when the matches are played around mid day,
lunch for late afternoon matches and an early dinner when matches are played
late in the evening.
The response of players towards the importance of water is leans to positive.
80% respond in a positive but they have negative responses towards the intake
of water within 15-20 minutes intervals. According to Bergeron (2003) changes
in body’s water content can impair endurance performance. Without adequate
fluid replacement, exercise tolerance shows a pronounced decrease during long
term activity because of water loss through sweating.
The official us youth soccer coaching manual (20002:76) recommends that
drinking before and during
a game of football as follows: Before Training
seasons, drink 2 cups of fluid one hour prior to playing, during a training/
match make an effort to drink 0.5 cup of fluid every 15-20 minutes of
play/training time.
Result of study towards the influence of nutrition in performance level is leans
to negative. In order to become effective during training and competition R. J
Maugham (2010) recommends players should personally mange their energy
stores of body fat, carbohydrate (muscle fuel) and protein (Muscle mass) by
managing intake and expenditure of these nutrients separately. Players
respond negatively towards alcohol consumption 80% of players are interested
in drinking alcohol.
Players who have interest of drinking alcohol is expose for fast dehydration,
lose consistent performance. According to Michael gold (1993) alcohol drinking
is not advisable for footballers because the body can absorbed it slowly and it
impeded rehydration, make players forget about following sound recovery
practices such as treatment for in injuries, adequate sleep or optimal eating
and drinking
In contrast to this F. MARC nutrition for football published by FIFA (2010)
indicates alcohol is a personal choice and there is no evidence of impairments
to health and performance when alcohol is used sensibly.
Relationship among Variable
The result in the correlation analysis indicates that in some extent age
influence player’s nutritional attitude. As Garcial (1975) with increasing age
players reduce significantly their fat intake and increase significantly
carbohydrate and minerals intake.
The result shows when player’s age increase its attitude towards nutrition also
changes.
According to dickens (1965) difference in food interest and attitude among
different age categories may come about because of technological, economic
and social changes in a society.
Result of Independent Sample T- Test
In table 4 the result found from the independent sample t-test indicates there
is no statistically significant difference between players who have cultural
influence and those who have no cultural influence in their nutritional interest
and attitude.
The result contradicts with dickens (1965). Dickens viewed culture influence
interest and attitude of players. The influences are resulted from environmental
condition such as climate, technology, geography, and food availability. Here
one can raise a question that in Ethiopia there are so many cultural diversity
in foods so why not culture influence food interest and attitude of players. The
reason is the essential nutrients for footballers which help them effective are
more or less similar and acceptable almost all over the world or may be players
adapt the nutrient through experience.
Another result in independent sample t-test shows there is no statistically
difference between players having fasting habit and those who have no fasting
habits during fasting season towards nutritional interest and attitude.
From the total no of players 15 (60%) players have habits of fasting but they
have no significant difference in its nutritional interest and attitude when
compared with the rest of 10 (40%) players who have no fasting habits.
In some extent fasting influence nutritional interest and attitude not only these
they also influence players performance highly.
According to R.J Maugham
(2010) during Ramadan energy in take is relatively stable in the fasting players
but there is a small significant decrease of approximately 0.7 kg in body mass
and water intake decrease on average by 1.3L/day in line with its fasting.
In Christian fasting daily kcal intake may or may not decrease. But
carbohydrate intake increase and fat intake decrease. In general both fasting
season impaired performance level during training and match play.
The result in the one way analysis of variance in table (9,13,15,17,19) indicates
that there is no a statistically significant difference in players nutritional
interest and attitude among different groups of players with varying age,
playing experience and playing position of players.
As we can see the result in table 9 the general trend of player age increment is
not consistently increase or decreases the interest and attitude of players
towards nutrition. For example, the first group has higher mean interest than
the second. At the second glance it seems that players interest decrease when
their age increase but it is not a constant because the third holds higher than
the first and the second. From this we can understand that increment in
player’s age does not show either a constant increment or decrement in their
mean interest towards nutrition. Result in table 11, the general trend of groups
is consistent. For example, the first group has lower mean attitude than the
second, the second group holds lower mean attitude than the third. From this
we can understand that an increment in players age show a constant
increment in attitudes of players towards nutrition.
According to Garcial (1975) when age increases the nutritional attitudes of
players will change due to technology, economy and social changes in a society.
The other results in table 13 the midfield players have low mean result of
interest and attitude towards nutrition than goal keepers and defensive players
holds.
We can also see the result in table 17 and 19 the general trend of the group in
relation with playing experience with interest and attitude of players towards
nutrition is not consistent. For example interest result in table 17
the first
group has the higher mean interest result than the second and the third group.
But the result in the second group is lower than the third. The result At the
second glance it seems that players mean interest increase when their playing
experience increase, but it is not a long lasting impression because the third
group is higher than the second. From this we can understand that an
increment players playing experience increase does not show either a constant
increment or decrement in their mean interest towards nutrition. The result in
mean result of player’s attitude with playing experience in table 17 is similar
with result in table 19.
The result of the descriptive statistics of the scores of coach’s recommendation
towards player’s nutritional interest in table (22) indicates the coaches mean
recommendation score is just above the median. This result is clearly shown in
figure 3. The result reveals nutritional interest leans towards positive
direction. The result requires some improvement.
Coaches are second father of all players in the team, so the coach should
recommend players to follow scientific nutritional menu. Most of the time many
coaches recommend and prepare scientific nutrition menu for the players. For
example Arsenal manger Arsene Wenger prepare the players dinner menu.
CHAPTER FIVE
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendation
5.1. Summary
The objectives of this study were to investigate the nutritional interest and
attitude of saint George football club players. Based on this general objectives
Research question were raised. These were:
1. What is the nature of the players interest that holds towards nutrition
2. What is the nature of attitude that players holds towards nutrition?
3. What is the relationship between the demographic characteristics
(age, playing experience and playing position) of players and their
interest and attitude towards nutrition?
4. Is there a statistically significant mean difference between players
having cultural influence and those have no cultural influence on
their interest and attitude towards nutrition?
5. Is there a statistically significance mean difference between players
having fasting habits and those who have no fasting habits on their
interest and attitude towards nutrition?
6. Is there statistically significant mean difference between players in
different age categories on their interest and attitude towards
nutrition?
7. Is there a statistically significant mean difference between players in
different playing position on their interest and attitude towards
nutrition?
8. Is there a spastically significant mean difference between groups of
players with differing duration of playing experience on their interest
and attitude towards nutrition?
To answer the above questions which were raised in the research question data
which were collected from 25 players and 4 coaches. The instrument is a likert
type five point scales with a response category. The scale includes 25 items for
players and 16 items for coaches. Before conducting the study, the letter
cooperation was given to the club administrator. After permission was
approved, the questionnaire was distributed and collected through the club
administrators.
The data collected from the participant was analyzed by using quantitative
methods, descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation), correlation,
independent sample t-test, and one way analysis of variance. The result
revealed that the player’s interest and attitude and coaches recommendation
towards nutrition leans towards positive direction.
The correlation result shows there was very strong and positive correlation
between player’s interest and attitude, and the correlation between them is
astatically significant.
The other result of this study was the independent sample t-test result which
indicates that there was no significant difference between players having
cultural influence and those have no influence, and between players who have
fasting habits and those have no fasting habits towards nutrition.
The other result of this study was the one way analysis of variance result which
indicates that there was no significant difference among groups of players with
differing playing experience on their interest and attitude towards nutrition.
But there was weak positive correlation between players in different age
category with attitude towards nutrition but there was no significant difference.
The other result of this study was the coach recommendation towards players
nutrition was leans to positive direction.
5.2. Conclusion
Based on the findings of the study the following conclusions were drown:
1. Saint George football club players had nutritional interest and attitude
which leans towards positive direction. However, much more remains to
be improved
2. The ages of players were weak positive correlated with in the nutritional
attitude. But the correlation between them was not statistically
significant
3. There was no statistically significant mean difference between players
who have cultural influence and those who have no cultural influence in
its interest and attitude towards nutrition. Thus there is no cultural
influence in players’ interest and attitude.
4. There was no statistically significant mean difference between players
who have fasting habits and those who have no fasting habit in its
nutritional interest and attitude. Thus there is no fasting influence in
players’ nutritional interests and attitude.
5. There was difference in players’ nutritional attitude in different age group
but the difference is not statistically significant.
6. There was no statistically significant mean difference between players
with deferent playing position on their nutritional interest and attitude.
But mid field players have low nutritional interest and attitude
7. There was no statistically significant mean difference between players
playing experience in its interest and attitude towards nutrition.
5.3. Recommendation
Based on the results of the study and conclusion made the following
recommendations are suggested:
1. Players should know scientific nutritional recommendation.
2. The club administrators should arrange training program for players
concerned
on
scientific
nutritional
program
by
food
nutritionist
(Dieticians).
3. The club administrator needs to facilitate training for coaches about
nutrition.
4. Players should avoid negative attitudes towards nutrition
5. The club administrators should recruit nutritionist for the club.
6. Further studies should be conducted to examine players interest and
attitude towards nutrition.
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APPENDIX1
ADDIS ABEBA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE PROGRAM
Department of Life Science 2013
Questionnaire Filed by Sent George Club Player
Dear Players
The purpose of this study is to examine attitude of players towards your eating
habit. Your participation in this research is on voluntary bases.
It does not affect you personally and the responses will be kept in absolute
confidentiality. Your responses will be used only to this research purpose. To
maintain anonymity you are not required to write your name. The success of
this study is highly dependent on your genuine and timely response. Therefore
your honest and responsible cooperation in filling the questionnaire is highly
indispensable. You have to read and follow the instructions given for the
questionnaires carefully.
I forward my sincere thanks for your cooperation.
General Direction:1. No need of writing your name
2. Fill in the blanks and circle that you choose from the alternative
Part I Demographic in formation
1. Name of the club_______________
2. Age ___________
3. Position of playing _________________
4. How many years have you played in the club _________
5. Do you have cultural influence in your diet?
A. Yes
B. No
6. Do you fast in fasting season
A. Yes
B. No
Parte II Put an “X” Mark on the Given Space That Best
Describes Your Interest towards Food Items
No
Food items
1
Kitfo
2
Kekele
3
Tibse
4
Row meat
5
Doro
6
Pasta
7
Yogurt
8
Cheese
9
Cereals
10
Vegetable
11
Fruits
12
Bread
13
Rice
14
Egg
15
Fish
16
Milk
I like very much
I like
I do not mind
I dislike
Strongly dislike
Part III Put An “X” Mark on the Given Space that Best
Describes your Agreement or Disagreement with the Statement.
No Items/attitudes statement
Strongly
agree
1
2
Players must eat five times a day
Players should not eat lot of sweet
3
Fluids should be replaced before,
during after exercise
Food influence performance level
Pre
and
during
training
carbohydrate
rich
foods
are
advisable
To what degree do you know pre
event meal should be eaten about 34 hours before competition
Rely on thirst to ensure fluid
replacement
during
and
after
competition is important.
4
5
6
7
8
9
Carbohydrate food a make fat
After competition drinking alcohol is
important
10
players are advised to eat fat reach
foods
11
For players protein are
important than carbohydrate
Agree
Undecided
Disagree
Strongly
disagree
more
If you have any comment on your Nutritional attitude write on the space
provided:____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Thank You!
APPENDIXES 2
Addis Ababa University
School of Graduate Studies Department of Sport Science
Questions answered by the Coaches
Dear Coaches
The purpose of this interview questions is to gather information about the
nutritional attitude of sent George club footballers.
All information collected from you will be confidential. Your genuine and
accurate responses can contribute a lot to the success of the research. So I
kindly request you to respond all questions honestly. Thank you in advance for
your cooperation.
General Direction
1. No need of writing your name
2. Put “” sign in the box
Part one:- Personal back ground
Sex:-
Male
Female
Age 20-25 Years
36-40 Years
26-30 Years
31-35 Years
above 40 Years
Educational level:- 10 or 12 complete
certificate
diploma
degree and above
coaching qualification level one
FIFA coach
Level
level two
none
C level
Part Two
The Following Table is About Food Items which are Common in Ethiopian
Players, How Do You Recommend Them for Your Players. Put “X” Mark on
the Given Space that Describes your Interest with the Food Items.
No
Food items
I recommend very I recommend
much
I do not mind
I do not
Strongly do
recommend
not
recommend
1
Kitfo
2
Kekele
3
Tibse
4
Row meat
5
Doro
6
Pasta
7
Yogurt
8
Cheese
9
Cereals
10
Vegetable
11
Fruits
12
Bread
13
Rice
14
Egg
15
Fish
16
Milk
Thank You!
Appendixes 3
አአአ አአአ አአአአአአ አአአ አአአ አአአአአ አአአአአ
አአአ አአአአ አአአአ አአአአአ አአአአ አአአአአ አአአ
አአአአ አአ አአአአአ አአአአአ አአአአ
አአአአአአአ አአአአአአየየየ የየየየ የየ የየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየ የየየየየ
የየየ የየየ የየየየየየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየየየየየየ የየየየየየየ የየየ የየየየየ
የየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየየየ የየየ የየየ የየየ የየ የየ የየየየየየ
የየ የየየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየ የየየየ
የየየየ የየ የየየየየ የየየየየ የየ የየየየየ የየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ
የየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየ
የየየየየየየየየ
የየየ
የየየየየየየ
የየየየየየ
የየ
የየየየ
የየየየየየየየ
የየ
የየየየ
የየየ
የየየ
የየየየ
የየየየየየ
የየየየየየ የየ
አአአአአአ1. የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየ የየየየየየየ
2. የየየየየ የየየ የየ የ“” የየየየ የየየየየ የየ የየየየየ የየ የየ የየ
የየየየ
የየየየየ የየየየ
አአአ አአአአ- አአአአአአ አአአ አአአ
1. የየየየ የየ_______________________________
2. የየየ 18-20
20-25
3. የየየየየየየየ የየ ___________________
4. የየየየየ የየየየየየ የየ _________________
5. የየየየየየየ የየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ?
የ. የየየየ
የ. የየየየየ
6. የየየ የየየ የየየየየ ?
የ. የየየየየ
አአአ አአአ
የ. የየየየየ
25-30
የየየየየየ የየየየየ የየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየ
የየየየየ የየየየ የየ የየየ የየየየየየየየየየ /የየየየየየየየየ
የየየየየ የየ የየ
የየ የ X የየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየ
የ.የ የየየየ የየየየ
የየየ
የየየየየ
የየ የየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየየ
1
የየየ
2
የየየ
3
የየየ
4
የየ የየ
5
የየ
6
የየየ
7
የየየ
8
የየየ
9
የየየየ
10
የየየየየየ
11
የየየየ
12
የየ
13
የየ
14
የየየየየ
15
የየ
16
የየየ
አአአ አአአ አአአአአአአ አአአ አአአአአአ አአአየየየየየ የየ የየ የየ የየየየየየ የየየየየየየየየ የ X የየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየ
የ
የ.የ የየየየየየየ የየየ
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
የየየ
የየየየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየ
የየየየ
የየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየ
የየየ የየየ የየየ የየየ
የየየ የየየየ የየየ የየየ
የየየየየየ
የየ
የየየየየ
የየየየየየ
የየየየ የየየየየየየየ
የየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየ
የየ የየየ የየየየየ
የየየ የየየየ የየ የየየየ
የየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየ የየየየየ የየየ የየ
የየ የየየየ የየየየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየ
የየየየ
የየየየየ የየየየየ የየየየየ
የየየየ የየየየየየ
የየየየ የየ የየየየ የየ
የየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየ
የየየየየ
8
የየየየየየየየየ
የየየየየ የየየየየ
9
የየየየየ
የየየ
የየየየ
የየየየ የየየ የየ
የየየየየ
የየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየየየ
የየየየ
የየየየየየየየየ
የየየየ
የየየየ የየየ የየየ
10
11
የየየየየየ የየየየየየየ የየየየየየ የየየ
የየየየየየ
የየየየየ
የየ የየየየየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየየ የየ
የየየየ____________________________
________________________________________________________________
____
አአአአአአአ !!
Appendixes 4
አአአ አአአ አአአአአአ አአአ አአአ አአአአአ አአአአአ
አአአ አአአአ አአአአ አአአአአ አአአአ አአአአአ አአአ
አአአአ አአ አአአአአአ አአአአአ አአአአ
አአ አአአአአአየየየ የየየየ የየ የየየ የየየየየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየ (የየየየየየ) የየየየየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየ
የየየየየ
የየየየየየየ
የየየየየየየ
የየየ
የየየየየ
የየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየየ የየየየየ የየየ የየየ የየየ የየ የየ የየየየየየ የየ
የየየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየ የየየየ
የየየየ የየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየ የየየየየ የየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ
የየየየ የየየየየ የየየ የየየ
የየየየየየ የየ የየየየ የየ የየየ የየየየ የየየየየ
የየየየየየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየየየየ የየየየ የየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየየ የየ
የየየየየየ1. የየየየ የየየየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየየ የየየየየየየ
2. የየየየየየ የየየ የየ የ“” የየየየ የየየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየ
አአአ አአአአ- አአአአአአአ አአአ አአአ
1. የየ
የየየ
2. የየየ 20-25
የየ
26-30
31-35
36-40
40 የየየ
3. የየየየየየ የየየየ- 10 የየየ 12 የየየየ
የየየየየየ
የየየየ
የየየ የየየ
የየየ የ
የየየ የየ የየየ
4. የየየየየየየየ የየየየ- የየየ የየየ
FIFA የየየየየ
አአአ አአአ
የየየ የየየ
የየየየየየ የየየየየ የየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየየየ የየ
የየየየየ የየየየ የየየየየ የየየየየየ የየ የየየ የየየየየየየየየ የየየየየየየየ
የየየየየ የየ የየ የየ የ X የየየየ የየየየየየ የየየየየ
የ.የ የየየየ የየየየ
የየየ
የየየየየየ
የየየየየየ
1
የየየ
2
የየየ
3
የየየ
4
የየ የየ
5
የየ
6
የየየ
7
የየየ
8
የየየ
9
የየየየ
10
የየየየየየ
11
የየየየ
12
የየ
13
የየ
14
የየየየየ
15
የየ
16
የየየ
የየ
የየየየ
የየየየየየ የየየ
የየየየየየ
አአአአአአአ!!
Declaration
I declared that this thesis is my original work and has not been presented for a
degree in any other university, and that all sources of materials used for the
thesis have been dual acknowledged.
Name: Yohannes Birhane
Signature: __________________
Date: ________________________
This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a
university advisor
Name: Bezabih Wolde
Signature: ________________________
Date: _____________________________
Acknowledgement
I would like to take this opportunity to thank god for the abundant grace, love,
protection and good health enjoyed throughout the period of this course and
thesis. And I would like to thank the many people who played an important
role in the completion of this thesis.
First, I would like to thank my advisor Dr. Bezabih Wolde for extensive help;
patience and guidance.
I would also like to thank players and coaches of Saint George football club for
their cooperation and willingness to participate in this study.
I would like to thank the members of my family for always supporting me.
Finally thank you all friends who supported me in many ways Aynalem Beyene
for her secretarial work.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the nutritional interest and attitude
of saint George football club players. The participants include 25 players and 4
coaches from Saint George football club. They were selected purposely the
subject completed a nutritional interest and attitude questionnaire. To attain the
desire
objectives
the
study
a descriptive
survey based
on
structured
questionnaire was conducted. Data were analyzed with quantitative method and
spss (2010). The result of the study revealed mean overall nutrition interest and
attitude scores for football players’ was 67.40 and 40.20 respectively, age of
players correlated positively with nutritional attitude of players, no statistical
significant mean difference between players having cultural influence and
fasting habits with players who have no cultural influence and fasting habits
towards nutritional interest and attitude, no statistical significant mean
difference between players with different playing position and playing
experience towards nutrition. This paper recommends the need of scientific
nutritional course for players, coaches and players parent and also the club
should recruit nutritionist.
Key words: nutrition, interest, attitude, players and diet
ABBREVIATION AND ACRONYMS
ADA- American Dietetic Association
DSHEA- Supplement Health and Education ACT
FIFA- Federation International De Football Association
FITT- Frequency, intensity, time and type
GI-Glycimic index
SPSS- Statistical Software Package for Social Science
List of Appendix
Appendix 1. Questionnaire to be filled by the players
Appendix 2.Questionnaire to be filled by the coaches
Appendix 3. የየየየየየ የየየየ የየየየ
Appendix 4. የየየየየየየ
የየየየ የየየየ