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GERMANY 1918-1945 REVISION GUIDE Hitler Youth Propaganda Poster Propaganda Poster MAIN CONTENTS Pages 1. GERMANY IN CRISIS 1918-1923 3 - 29 2. THE GOLDEN AGE 1924-1929 30 - 37 3. HITLER’S RISE TO POWER 1929-1933 38 - 47 4. CONSOLIDATION OF POWER 1933-1934 48 - 57 5. KEEPING CONTROL OF THE GERMAN PEOPLE 1933-1945 58 - 65 6. YOUTH POLICY 1933-1945 66 - 73 7. POLICY TOWARDS WOMEN 1933-1945 74 - 81 8. ANTI-SEMITIC POLICIES 1933-1945 82 -87 9. OPPOSITION TO HITLER 1933-1945 88 - 94 2 GERMANY IN CRISIS (1918-1923) STAB IN THE BACK TREATY OF VERSAILLES THE RUHR CRISIS HYPERINFLATION MUNICH PUTSCH 3 KEY EVENTS 1918-1923 (A good place to start your revision of this period) 1918 WORLD WAR ONE 1919 Nov 11th – German government (‘November Criminals’) surrendered against the army’s wishes (‘Stab in the back’) Feb – Weimar Republic formed June 28th – Treaty of Versailles 1920 Nazi Party formed (Extreme right wing group) 1921 Reparations figure of £6.6 billion announced. Triggers hyperinflation 1922 HYPERINFLATION 1923 Jan – French and Belgian troops invaded the Ruhr HYPERINFLATION INTENSIFIED Nov 8th to 9th 1923 – Munich Putsch 1924 4 EARLY PROBLEMS (1918-1921) 5 WEAKNESSES OF THE NEW WEIMAR REPUBLIC (1) THE POLITICAL SYSTEM On paper, Germany had become a perfect democracy (= a system based on elections and votes), with the people having a much greater say in the way the country was run. For example, the head of state – the PRESIDENT and the German parliament, the REICHSTAG – were elected directly by the people. 6 7 However, this so-called ‘perfect’ political system had major weaknesses: It was based on a voting system called PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION, which meant that the size of parties in the REICHSTAG (Parliament) reflected the number of votes that they received. The parties that supported the new Weimar Republic, such as the Social Democrats and People’s Party, did form the majority. However some smaller, more extreme parties like the Communists (K.P.D.) and Nazis (N.S.D.A.P.) were also elected to the Reichstag and they wanted to destroy the Weimar Republic from the very beginning. 8 (2) BLAME FOR THE GERMAN DEFEAT IN WORLD WAR ONE The new republican government was criticised for the surrender at the end of World War One (Nov 11th 1918). Propaganda during the war had claimed that Germany was winning and so the news of defeat came as a great shock. The army leader, LUDENDORFF, stated that the army could have fought on – but was betrayed by cowardly politicians who made peace too early. This ‘betrayal’ of the German army by its own government (the ‘November Criminals’) became known as the “STAB IN THE BACK.” For the enemies of the Weimar Republic, such as the Nazis and Nationalists, this ‘myth’ became a powerful weapon to show how unpatriotic the government was. 9 (3) THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES (June 28th 1919) The Versailles (spell correctly!) peace treaty that officially ended World War One was extremely harsh and reflected the French President, CLEMENCEAU’s determination to severely punish and weaken Germany. From the German perspective, it was a DIKTAT or dictated treaty, which they had been forced to sign without negotiation. This further intensified the feeling in Germany that their own government was bringing shame and humiliation to the country. (A) WAR GUILT AND REPARATIONS Through ARTICLE 231, Germany was given the total blame for causing World war One. The Germans were outraged, claiming the war had been an international conflict and that Germany had only acted in ‘self defence’. Since Germany was given complete blame for the war, she was forced to pay ‘war damages’ or REPARATIONS which were announced in 1921 to be £6.6 billion. To most Germans, this seemed to be extremely unjust, particularly as they had lost 10% of their industry and 15% of their agricultural land in the treaty. 10 (B) MILITARY RESTRICTIONS Clemenceau (the French President) intended that Germany should never again have the military capability to threaten France and so the terms were once again severe: Germany could only have a tiny ARMY of 100,000 men –making the country extremely vulnerable. The NAVY was reduced to 15,000 sailors, 6 battleships and no submarines. Germany’s AIRFORCE was completely disbanded. Conscription (forcing men into the army) was forbidden. Result – Germany’s proud military reputation, established during the 2nd Reich under the Kaiser, was now in tatters and patriotic Germans were deeply offended. (C) TERRITORIAL LOSSES Altogether, Germany lost 13% of its land and 6 million of its people. This included the rich industrial regions of ALSACE-LORRAINE. To give Poland access to the sea, Germany had to surrender the territory of POSEN – but this split Germany into two. German troops were forbidden to enter the RHINELAND (a sensitive area on the French border) for 15 years. All of Germany’s overseas COLONIES were taken away. Result – The Treaty of Versailles reinforced the idea that Germany’s government was disloyal and was “stabbing their own country in the back.” 11 GERMAN REACTIONS TO THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES – - POLITICAL PROPAGANDA CARTOONS (A) A German cartoon showing the Devil and his cronies gloating over the terms of The Treaty of Versailles 12 (B) A cartoon published in a German newspaper in July 1919. It shows Clemenceau, Prime Minister of France, as a vampire feeding on Germany. 13 (C) A German poster protesting at Germany’s military weakness as a result of the Versailles Treaty. 14 (D) A sympathetic British cartoon 15 FIRST CHALLENGES TO THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC 1919-1920 THE SPARTACISTS KAPP’S PUTSCH 16 EARLY THREATS TO THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC 1919-1920 The new Weimar Republic quickly came under attack from extreme left and right wing groups who wanted to destroy the democratic system. 1. THREAT FROM THE LEFT – THE SPARTACIST (COMMUNIST) REVOLT OF JANUARY 1919 This was a poorly organised rising against the government led by ROSA LUXEMBURG and KARL LEIBKNECHT. They feared that the new republic would be built on capitalist (profit making) ideas which would favour the rich over the working classes. If possible, they wanted to create a communist republic similar to the one created by Lenin in Russia via the October 1917 revolution. President Ebert then played a gamble that worked. He appealed to the groups of ex-soldiers called the FREIKORPS to crush the rebellion in Berlin. The uprising was brutally crushed and both Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Leibknecht were executed after arrest. Although this seemed to be a victory for the new government, it was playing into the hands of the extreme right wing Freikorps which itself had contempt for the Weimar republic. Rosa Luxemburg Karl Liebknecht The Spartacist uprising 17 2. THREAT FROM THE RIGHT – THE KAPP PUTSCH (REVOLT) OF MARCH 1920 This right wing Freikorps hated everything about the Weimar Republic – its democratic process and the humiliating Treaty of Versailles. In March 1920 Dr Wolfgang Kapp led some Freikorps units, numbering 5000, to seize control of Berlin. They were successful because the regular army refused to defend the government. The Weimar Republic seemed doomed, to be replaced by a right wing military dictatorship under Kapp. As a last resort, the weak government called on the workers to go on strike against the right wing revolt and a general strike followed. Berlin ground to a halt and key services such as water and electricity supplies stopped. Within just 4 days Kapp realised that he could not maintain control and fled. The Weimar republic had survived – but this was only a temporary reprieve. Later under the Nazi Party, the threat from the extreme right would re-emerge – and finally destroy the republic. SCENES FROM THE KAPP PUTSCH Dr Wolfgang Kapp 18 LEBENSRAUM TREATY OF VERSAILLES Hitler regarded this Treaty as unfair and vindictive – a DIKTAT imposed on Germany by the Allies. He pledged to destroy its terms if he came to power, especially its humiliating articles on War Guilt, military restrictions and territorial losses Hitler believed that Germany’s rising population (900,000 per year) needed extra living space or Lebensraum to expand into. This would be in the East – conquering Poland and the U.S.S.R. SOCIAL DARWINISM Nazis racial ideology was based on Charles Darwin’s theory of the “survival of the fittest”. This involved a struggle between stronger, superior races like the Aryan Germans – and weaker, inferior groups such as the Jews and Slavs. They similarly detested Communism with its emphasis on equality STRONG RULE Hitler’s political beliefs/ideology 19 Hitler regarded the idea of democracy, with its votes and elections, as a sign of weakness. In this view this was proven by the performance of the Weimar Republic. Instead he preferred a dictatorship, with strong, authoritarian rules 1923 A VERY DIFFICULT YEAR 20 In 1923 two crises threatened the very existence of the Weimar Republic:- (1) THE RUHR CRISIS The announcement of the reparation figure (£6.6 billion) in 1921 had triggered HYPERINFLATION, defined as: “a situation in which the value of money falls extremely quickly until it becomes worthless.” For example, in 1921 a loaf of bread cost 3.9 Reichsmarks, rising to 165.5 Reichsmarks by 1922. Germany announced in 1922 that it could not afford to pay the second instalment of reparations. Therefore in JAN 1923 60,000 French and Belgian soldiers marched into the rich industrial area of Germany called the RUHR – and began taking reparations by force. A German poster from 1923. The text means “Hands off the Ruhr!” 21 The German government did not have the armed forces to resist the invasion and so ordered the Ruhr workers to go on strike – a policy of ‘PASSIVE RESISTANCE.’ However, the German government could not afford to pay the striking workers and unwisely decided to print large amounts of money. This led to a loss in confidence in the currency (the Reichsmark) which in turn accelerated HYPERINFLATION, which became so disastrous that workers were encouraged to carry their wages in wheelbarrows! The alarming decline in value of the German Reich mark as the result of hyperinflation 22 Effects of Hyperinflation There were some winners from hyperinflation – for example people with debts could easily pay off their loans – often with a single banknote! However, there were many more losers: Savers – People’s life savings were wiped out overnight, particularly by Nov 1923 when a loaf of bread cost 201,000,000,000 Reichsmarks. Pensioners – Those on fixed pensions found that their incomes were too low to sustain them. Businessmen – Daily price rises made running a business impossible. Many simply went bankrupt. A woman using bank notes to start her fire, 1923 German children, in 1923, show how many German marks are equal to one US dollar Results of the Ruhr crisis and Hyperinflation The Ruhr crisis was extremely damaging for the Weimar Republic. It had seemed weak in the face of the French and Belgian invasion and reinforced the hatred of the Treaty of Versailles. Patriotic Germans were particularly appalled and yearned for a return to the days of the Second Reich (before 1918) and the Kaiser. 23 CRISIS (2) THE MUNICH PUTSCH – NOV 1923 Leaders of the putsch Hitler and Ludendorff are in the centre, and Röhm is standing second from the right 24 [A] CAUSES (Why did Hitler attempt a Putsch in Nov 1923?) 1) End of PASSIVE RESISTANCE during he 1923 Ruhr crisis The credibility of the Weimar Government had been severely undermined (weakened) from the moment French troops occupied the Ruhr area of Germany in January 1923. It gave the impression of weakness, particularly as the crisis intensified the level of HYPERINFLATION. 140 Germans were shot dead during the 8 month occupation. When Stresemann formed a new government, he abandoned the policy of PASSIVE RESISTANCE. Right wingers (such as the Nationalists and Nazis) portrayed this as yet another humiliating surrender to Germany’s enemies. The general dissatisfaction with the Weimar Government convinced Hitler that the time was surely right for a Nazi takeover (‘a Putsch’). 2) POTENTIAL SUPPORT If a revolt or putsch was to be successful, it would need the support of the army. Hitler believed the army would not take much persuasion to abandon the ‘unpatriotic’ Weimar Republic. After all, the government had “stabbed the army in the back” in Nov 1918, signed the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 and allowed French troops to invade the Ruhr in Jan 1923. The former war hero and army leader, LUDENDORFF, was showing support for Nazi policies. Perhaps he could bring the army across to Hitler’s side? Moreover, Hitler appeared to have natural allies in Munich, the seat of the Bavarian State Government. Under VON KAHR, they were right wing and felt no loyalty to the national government in Berlin. Hitler felt that the Bavarian Government would transfer its allegiance to him if he attempted a putsch. 3) The example of MUSSOLINI in Italy Hitler was heavily influenced by a right wing takeover in Italy just a year earlier (1922) by the fascist Benito MUSSOLINI. During an ‘heroic’ MARCH ON ROME Italians had abandoned their loyalty to the central government and supported Mussolini’s cause. Therefore Hitler believed he could EMULATE (copy) Mussolini’s success and carry out a similar ‘Putsch’ in Germany. 25 Nazis marching into the centre of Munich on the morning of 9 November The army opens fire on the Nazis 26 [B] EVENTS OF THE MUNICH PUTSCH (8th – 9th NOV 1923) N.B. A ‘putsch’ = a revolt or uprising Aims of the Putsch 2 separate stages:- Stage 1 To seize control of Munich in Bavaria (Southern Germany), securing an initial stronghold in an area which was notoriously disloyal to the central government. Stage 2 To then march on the national government in Berlin and establish control over Germany. The Weimar Republic would therefore be overthrown. The actual events of the Putsch occurred during 2 days: 8th – 9th Nov 1923. Day 1 Nov 8th Hitler and 600 storm troopers disrupted a meeting of the Bavarian state government at a beer hall in Munich. The Bavarian Prime Minister, KAHR, was present. Hitler declared a ‘national revolution’ and made a passionate speech to the 3000 businessmen in the beer hall. At gunpoint, Kahr and his ministers were taken into a side room and persuaded to support Hitler’s proposed putsch. Hitler, backed by the war hero LUDENDORFF, believed he now had the means to seize control of Munich the next day. Day 2 Nov 9th Kahr escaped during the night and alerted the national government in Berlin. 3000 Nazis, led by Hitler and Ludendorff, marched on Munich. Hitler hoped the police and army would come over to his side but instead they opened fire, killing 16 Nazis. Hitler narrowly escaped and was arrested on a charge of treason 2 days later. The Putsch had failed. 27 (C) RESULTS / CONSEQUENCES OF THE MUNICH PUTSCH (1) NEGATIVE OUTCOMES [a] A‘flawed’ plan Hitler’s failure in the ‘Putsch’ illustrated that he had clearly over-estimated his own popularity and abilities and the strength of the Nazi Party. The Putsch portrayed him as a lacking political and organisational skills (e.g. failing to gain the support of Von Kahr / believing he could gain control of Munich with just 3000 men). He had not even threatened the capital, Berlin. Imprisoned in Landsberg Castle, Hitler brought an image of violence to his party, from which it never recovered until the sudden down swing of the economy triggered by the Oct 1929 Wall Street Crash. [b] The Nazis – a “Party in tatters” The Nazi Party almost DISINTEGRATED while Hitler was in Landsberg Prison. Challenges to Hitler began to appear from within the Party itself. The most serious of these came from a young Nazi called GREGOR STRASSER who established the so-called “WORKING GROUP”. He wanted to push the Nazi Party further towards the ‘left’, to include more Socialist and antiCapitalist ideas. If Hitler had not been released from prison early, (after 9 months instead of 5 years), his control over the Nazi Party may have been lost. (2) POSITIVE OUTCOMES [a] Publicity Hitler exploited every opportunity to enhance (boost) his popularity even after the collapse of the Putsch. During his 24 day trial, he showed himself to be an extremely gifted ORATOR (speaker), as he spoke out against the “treasonable” Weimar Government. Such actions became front page news in every national newspaper and even abroad, allowing Hitler’s views and ideology to become known across Germany for the first time. Hitler was now the most famous of all the right wing politicians, with a platform for longer term success. Hitler further promoted his personal image and ideas through the writing of his book “MEIN KAMPF” (“My Struggle”). It covered many theories about history, politics and race and how Germany should face the future. “Mein Kampf” would ultimately become a best seller, helping to strengthen Nazi doctrines across Germany. By 1940 sales had reached 6 million. 28 [b] A change in Strategy Until 1923, Hitler had believed that a violent strategy, culminating in a ‘Putsch’ (Revolt) would bring him to power. His time in Landsberg Prison allowed him the opportunity to reevaluate his tactics and he now adopted a policy of “LEGALITY”. This meant, for the first time, accepting the democratic system of the Weimar Republic and showing himself to a respectable politician who followed legitimate methods. Like other political parties, he would attempt to gain votes and win elections. Once the Nazis had become the most important party, Hitler would sweep away democracy and make himself dictator (as, in fact, happened in 1933-1934.) Hitler and his fellow Nazis pose for a photograph in Landsberg prison 29 THE GOLDEN AGE (1924-1929) CURRENCY REFORM THE DAWES PLAN INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS REMAINING PROBLEMS 30 THE ‘GOLDEN AGE OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC’ (1924 – 1929) N.B. This information could be used to answer 3 types of question: 1. What were the SUCCESSES of the Weimar Republic? Why did it survive? 2. Why did the NAZI PARTY fail to make progress before 1929? 3. Did any problems remain during the “Golden Age?” Flag of the Weimar Republic _______________________________________________________________________ (A) THE ECONOMIC RECOVERY 1) Currency By 1923 HYPERINFLATION was reaching its peak and the government’s CREDIBILITY was severely undermined (weakened), particularly in the eyes of the middle classes. At the end of the year HANS LUTHER, the Finance Minister, replaced the Reichsmark with a new currency, the RENTENMARK. The new Rentenmark 31 Importance The French agreed to withdraw their forces from the RUHR which they had invaded in Jan 1923 to seize reparations by force. The hyperinflation ended and FINANCIAL STABILITY returned to Germany. The Weimar government appeared less weak which made it less vulnerable to attack from EXTREMIST groups like the N.S.D.A.P. (Nazis) and K.P.D. (Communists). 2) The Dawes Plan of 1924 This was mainly the achievement of GUSTAV STRESEMANN (practise this key spelling) who was Foreign Minister from 1923 – 1929. Reparation payments were reduced and a loan of $800 MILLION (dollars) was secured to help Germany recover. Gustav Stresemann 32 Importance Germany’s ECONOMIC RECOVERY was sustained which increased public confidence in the government and its democratic process. The threats of 1923 (e.g. the French occupation of the RUHR and the MUNICH PUTSCH) began to diminish. Even though the right wing NAZIS and NATIONAL PARTY condemned the Dawes Plan as ‘unpatriotic’ and the work of Jewish financiers, support for Hitler faded. The main reason is that standards of living were improving e.g. 3 MILLON new homes were built in 1928 the Nazis gained only 12 seats in the Reichstag (parliament). The loans from the U.S.A. via the Dawes Plan promoted a mini-‘INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION’ or ‘ECONOMIC BOOM’ in Germany. Factories were supplied with the most modern machinery and goods were MASS PRODUCED. Germany’s economic growth rate passed even that of Britain and France, with 33% increase in productivity. The Dawes Plan was reinforced in 1929 by the YOUNG PLAN. Germany’s reparation payments were reduced by 75% and her deadline extended by a further 58 YEARS. The Weimar Republic’s position was now much more secure and the future for extremist groups looked bleak. The Dawes Plan 33 (B) INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS The Treaty of Versailles had labelled Germany as the villain of World War One e.g. ARTICLE 231. Stresemann, as Foreign minister, set out to revive Germany’s image and reputation. 1) THE LACARNO PACT OF 1925 The pact or treaty was signed with France, Belgium, Britain and Italy. Germany promised never to attack France or Belgium again and to accept a peaceful solution to disputes. 2) ENTRY INTO THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS (1926) The League of Nations, set up in 1920, stood for peaceful negotiation rather than violent conflict (war). Stresemann persuaded his former enemies that Germany was now (1926) ready and fit to join. Even France agreed. 3) THE KELLOGG – BRIAND PACT OF 1928 Germany was one of 60 countries which agreed to RENOUNCE (reject) war as a means of settling disputes. Frank B. Kellogg Aristide Briand Importance (of the above 3 agreements) Germany emerged from being an OUTCAST in 1919 to being an accepted member of the INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY. Other nations were more willing to accept a reduction in Germany’s REPARATION payments (e.g. Young Plan, 1929). The Nazis, with their cries for ‘revenge’, seemed out of touch with the new mood of OPTIMISM and their support continued to drain away, despite Hitler’s re-modelling of the Nazi Party during the mid 1920’s. 34 PROBLEMS THAT STILL REMAINED DURING THE “GOLDEN AGE.” The “Golden Age” brought its successes, but some problems remained. Perhaps Stresesmann only “papered over the cracks” (i.e. on the surface there were achievements, but underlying difficulties, failures and threats still existed). Papering over the cracks 1) ECONOMIC PROBLEMS Germany still had to pay the £6.6 billion Reparations agreed in 1921 and this was a huge burden on the German economy. Unemployment posed a serious threat, despite the growing economy. From 1925 – it never fell below 1 million, and there was a notable rise to almost 2 million in 1928. Farmers faced particular hardship. Agricultural prices fell after 1925 and by 1929, farm workers’ wages were only half the national average. Most alarming, the German economy relied heavily on American loans, especially after the Dawes Plan of 1924 injected $800 million into the German economic recovery. Any downturn in the U.S. economy would spell disaster for Germany (as happened after the Wall Street Crash of 24th October 1929). Thus Germany was economically vulnerable. 2) THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC APPEARED TO BE UNPATRIOTIC Nearly all Germans hated the continued payment of reparations to the nation’s former enemies, particularly France. Even if the Dawes (1924) and Young (1929) plans eased the burden, Germany was still scheduled to pay reparations until 1988!! Right Wing parties, such as the Nazis and Nationalists, called for an immediate end to payments. This feeling that the Weimar Republic was unpatriotic was exacerbated (made worse) when Stresemann appeared to give in to France and called off passive resistance during the Ruhr Crisis. Some army generals demanded that the land lost in 1919 at Versailles, such as AlsaceLorraine (to France) and Posen (to Poland), should be won back by force if necessary. 35 CULTURE DURING THE ‘GOLDEN AGE’ 1924-29 During the ‘Golden Age’, the restrictions on culture were lifted which gave way to a flourish of activity: 1) American influences Charlie Chaplin Josephine Baker One of the most striking aspects of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ was the introduction of American popular culture – a symbol of the modern age (‘Modernism’). The humour of Charlie Chaplin was appreciated whilst many flocked to see Josephine Baker dancing (sometimes nude!) to jazz music. 2) Literature and film – Again, there was a clear break with tradition. Themes included the monotony of modern life and the futility of war – summarised in the 1929 film by Erich Maria Remarque: ‘All quiet on the Western Front’ (in book form it sold 500,000 copies). By the end of the 1930s, Germany was producing more films than all the other countries in Europe put together. 36 3) Architecture - Again, the trend was to break with tradition. Under WALTER GROPIUS, the BAUHAUS school of Architecture created startling new buildings. Walter Gropius Bauhaus movement new building Nazi reaction to ‘Modernist’ culture The new modernist culture was strongly attacked by extreme right-wing groups, such as the Nazis, who blamed the changes on Jewish influences. Terms used to condemn the new culture included ‘degenerate’, ‘decadent’ and ‘un-German’ One of the ‘decadent’ Berlin night clubs which the Nazis detested so much 37 HITLER’S RISE TO POWER (1929 – 1933) GREAT DEPRESSION HIITLER’S TALENTS AND PROMISES PROPAGANDA POLITICAL RIVALRY 1932-33 THE REICHSTAG FIRE 38 HITLER’S RISE TO POWER 1929 – 1933 Hitler being appointed Chancellor by Hindenburg at Potsdam, 30 January 1933 Important note 1. This section of the course appears, in one form or another, every year in the Examination. Be FULLY prepared. 2. If you are asked to deal with 2 or more reasons, a conclusion will usually be necessary. 3. There may be credit if you can show how the factors are inter-linked. 4. Be able to prioritise the reasons (“The most important factor ….”/ “A slightly less significant factor ….”). 5. The Reichstag Fire can be used as a reason if the question just says “1933” and not specifically up to the point when Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933. 39 FACTOR 1 THE GREAT DEPRESSION (1929 – 1933) A soup kitchen providing food for unemployed 40 Overview – (good way to start your answer) The Great Depression helped to turn the Nazi Party form an irrelevant group (12 seats in the Reichstag in 1928) to a powerful political force (230 seats in July 1932). Germany lost complete faith in democracy and looked for a “saviour” with the authority and strength to pull them out of the economic crisis. Causes of the Depression (Be careful with this. Only use it if it fits the question!!) The Great Depression in Germany was triggered by the Wall Street crash of Oct 24th 1029, when 26 billion dollars was wiped off the value of stocks and shares in the U.S.A. Subsequently, the U.S.A. began to recall their loans, including the $800 million supplied to Germany in the Dawes Plan of 1924. This plunged Germany into the Great Depression. Who suffered worst? Farmers – They had not gained from the “Golden Age” (1924-1929) like most other Germans. From 1925, prices had been falling and the Depression intensified the problems. Many farmers lost their lands which had sometimes been in their families for generations. Businessmen / factory workers – Firms that had borrowed heavily now went bankrupt. This in turn led to workers being laid off and causing high unemployment (40% of all factory workers by 1932). Overall, 6 million Germans were unemployed at the peak of the Depression, causing extreme poverty and suffering, especially when the government cut unemployment benefit. The Young – More than 50% of 16-30 year old Germans became unemployed by 1933. 60% of University graduates were unable to find employment. Effects of the Depression on the Weimar government and the Nazi Party The government had less income from taxes but was terrified that printing more bank notes would bring back the nightmare Hyperinflation of 1921-1923. Therefore, instead of spending their way out of the Depression, they cut back, which only added to their growing unpopularity. Essentially – the Depression made the Weimar Government and the system of democracy seem weak and ineffective. This greatly undermined the public’s confidence. Hitler, the skilful opportunist, was now able to step into the void, offering strength and hope. (Good link here into the next section). 41 FACTOR 2 HITLER’S TALENTS AND PROMISES 42 Whereas the “Golden Age” had stifled Hitler’s messages and talents, the “Great Depression” opened up new opportunities: Hitler the orator Hitler developed his speech-making skills into potent weapons, with the ability to mesmerise / hypnotise audiences. His charismatic personality set him aside from the leaders of other extreme groups such as the Communists or Nationalists. Creation of scapegoats Hitler cleverly created scapegoats against which the disillusioned Germans could vent their growing anger. He talked of an “International Jewish Conspiracy,” blaming the Jews for the Wall Street Crash and Great Depression. This gained support from the Middle Classes who feared a Communist takeover like in Soviet Russia and attracted financial backing from businessmen. Hitler’s promises N.B. There is a strong link here to Propaganda (Factor 3) – making this section a good example of “double value” Revision. Hitler’s promises offered hope to all Germans affected by the misery of the Great Depression: Promise 1. Revive the German Economy This was an irresistible promise to farmers whose lands had been repossessed, to failing businessmen facing competition from department stores and the 6 million unemployed of all ages. Promise 2. Make Germany “great” again Hitler revived the myth that the German Army had been “stabbed in the back” in November 1918 – a powerful message to attract the support of patriotic Germans, especially ex-soldiers. The promise to abolish the Treaty of Versailles, with its hated reparations, military and territorial restrictions, resonated with the disgruntled Germans. Hitler talked about re-armament and reviving national dignity and respect. Final Thought So did Hitler create his own destiny, or was he the product of fortunate circumstances? 43 FACTOR 3 PROPAGANDA ‘OUR LAST HOPE’: HITLER, A Nazi Poster of 1932 44 The propaganda of the Nazis outshone that of their opponents, including the Social Democrats and Communists. It was heavily influenced by new techniques pioneered in Madison Avenue, the advertising centre of New York. Hitler had already seen the vast potential in his book “Mein Kampf” in 1925 and emphasised the need for simple, direct messages: “Propaganda must confine itself to a very few points and repeat them endlessly.” The Organisation of Propaganda In 1933 JOSEPH GOEBBELS set up the “Ministry for People’s Enlightenment and Propaganda.” This was in turn subdivided into smaller bodies called “Chambers,” such as the Reich Chamber of Culture which controlled the Press, Radio, Theatre, Music and Film. At a lower level, there was a concerted attempt to indoctrinate young people in schools. Different Propaganda Methods Mass rallies Torchlight parades Radio programmes Newspaper articles (e.g. in Der Sturmer or the Volkinscher Beobachter) Films (e.g. “The Eternal Jew” – 1937) Posters Different types of Posters Some of these had NATIONAL messages which appealed to all Germans, but others were SECTORAL and targeted specific groups e.g. The Unemployed – promise of “work and bread.” Ex soldiers – “Make Germany great again.” The middle classes – fear of communism. Women - a neglected group, but comprising half of the electorate. Propaganda became a powerful tool for the Nazis against the “incompetent” Weimar Republic during the Great Depression years (1929-1933 – note the link to Factor 1) 45 FACTOR 4 POLITICAL RIVALRY 1932-33 46 In the July 1932 elections, the Nazis won 37% of the vote, giving them 230 seats in the Reichstag – more than any other political party. Hitler insisted on being appointed Chancellor by President Hindenburg. However, a second election in November 1932 saw the Nazi percentage of the vote fall to 33%. It seemed like Hitler’s hopes of power were slipping away. President Hindenburg Franz von Papen General von Schleicher However, Hitler’s chances were revived due to a better rivalry between Von PAPEN (leader of the Catholic Centre Party) and Von SCHLEICHER, an ambitious politician and general. Hindenburg had appointed Von Papen, his personal aristocratic friend, as Chancellor in 1932, but he was unable to retain support, and Schleicher was made Chancellor instead in December. He too was unable to command support and resigned on January 28th 1933. Hindenburg and Von Papen now hatched a plot to give Von Papen some power and Hitler was to be the pawn in their game. Hitler was made Chancellor with Von Papen as Vice Chancellor. It was believed that Hitler could be controlled and manipulated and would be unable to survive the challenges of the Great Depression. They had severely underestimated Hitler! 47 FACTOR 5 THE REICHSTAG FIRE FEB 27TH 1933 48 Hitler’s position before the Fire There is a misconception that Hitler had “achieved power” when Hindenburg chose him to be German Chancellor in January 1933. in fact hiss position was extremely precarious: Hindenburg, the aristocrat, had contempt for Hitler (the “Bohemian Corporal”) and could dismiss him at any time. Hitler’s share of the vote was actually falling. It had reached a peak of 37.4% in July 1932 but now stood at 33.1% The Reichstag Fire gave him the opportunity to turn a fragile position into one of strength. Events of the Fire (27th February 1933) When the Reichstag building caught fire on February 27th, a Dutch Communist, Marinus Van Der Lubbe, was arrested and charged with arson. He would subsequently be put on trial with 4 other Communists. Hitler and Goering quickly announced that the Nazis had saved Germany from a Communist putsch or revolt. (Some writers now believe the Nazis set fire to the Reichstag themselves to frame their political opponents.) Importance of the Fire to the Nazis Hitler exploited the fear of Communism felt by the 86 year old President Hindenburg and persuaded him to introduce an EMERGENCY DECREE the next day so that Hitler could deal with the crisis. This gave the Nazis special powers to tap phones and search property. 4000 Communists and other opponents of Hitler were arrested. Hitler claimed the Emergency Decree was only a temporary measure, but it actually remained in force until the fall of the Third Reich in 1945. Along with March 1933 Enabling Act, it swept away Hitler’s previous vulnerability and set him on a path towards TOTALITARIAN DICTATORSHIP. President Hindenburg Final thought Could you now prioritise the 4 factors in an order of importance? Which 2 would you select if given an open choice? 49 THE MOVE TO DICTATORSHIP HITLER’S CONSOLIDATION OF POWER HITLER’S VULNERABLE POSITION REICHSTAG FIRE ENABLING ACT NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES DEATH OF HINDENBURG ARMY OATH 50 GERMANY 1933-1934 – FROM DEMOCRACY TO A TOTALITARIAN DICTATORSHIP. THE CONSOLIDATION OF POWER Key terms DICTATOR A ruler with absolute (complete) power. TOTALITARIAN REGIME a one party state that controls every aspect of life. HITLER’S POSITION IN 1933 It would be misleading to think that when Hitler was made Chancellor in January 1933 his position was strong and secure. As the cartoon on P45 suggests, there were a number of serious threats to his authority:- 1) POLITICAL THREATS President HINDENBURG had chosen Hitler to be Chancellor but he could as soon dismiss him. Hindenburg the aristocrat (upper class) had contempt for this son of an Austrian customs official. Moreover (also), Hitler’s popular support seemed to be declining. In the last election (November 1932), he had secured 33.1% of the vote compared with 37.4 in July 1932. This was a long way short of the 51% needed to pass laws and the 67% required to change the German constitution (the political system). 2) POTENTIAL MILITARY OPPOSITION The German army was largely led by the upper classes and they looked down upon Hitler whom they referred to as the “Bohemian corporal”. It was quite possible that the army might attempt a putsch (revolt) against Hitler in a much more threatening way than Hitler himself had carried out ten years earlier in Munich. The above information reveals Hitler’s vulnerability and why he needed an event like the Reichstag Fire to consolidate his position. 51 An American cartoon from early 1933 with the caption ‘Not the most comfortable seat’ 52 HITLER’S TACTICS (1933) Within just 18 months, Hitler would alter his position from one of weakness and vulnerability to one of dictatorial power. 1933 1) THE REICHSTAG FIRE (Feb 27th 1933) When the Reichstag (parliament) building burnt down in February 1933, Hitler displayed his OPPORTUNISM once again. Although the evidence was extremely thin, he blamed the crime on the Communists, the perfect scapegoats! Hindenburg, the aristocrat, was frightened by the possibility of a Communist takeover, and now allowed Hitler to rule by EMERGENCY DECREE (i.e. to pass laws without consulting the Reichstag). 4000 Communists were arrested. The Nazis were given the power to tap phones and to search property. In fact the Emergency Decree would survive until the defeat of Nazism in 1945, and was a key weapon in imposing Hitler’s authority. 2) THE LAST DEMOCRATIC GERMAN ELECTION (March 1933) At the elections the Nazis won 44% of the vote, securing 288 seats. They had used the excuse of the Reichstag Fire to intimidate the opposition. The Emergency Decree was employed to prevent the Communists from taking up the 81 seats they had won. Now Hitler offered the gullible Catholic Centre Party a coalition which gave Hitler the 67% he needed to change the constitution. 53 3) THE ENABLING ACT/LAW (MARCH 23rd 1933) This law, passed in March 1933, was a TURNING POINT, a decisive step towards dictatorship. In short, it gave Hitler’s government (regime) the power to make its own laws without the approval of the president or the Reichstag. Instead the Reichstag would become merely a venue for Hitler’s key speeches. After 14 troubled years, the Weimar Republic and its democracy were finished. During 1933 Hitler used the Enabling Act to make fundamental political changes, the most important being the LAW AGAINST THE NEW FORMATION OF PARTIES IN July 1933. This made the Nazis the only legal party in Germany (a one party state). The rest e.g. the Communists and the Social Democrats, were banned. Trade Unions were also abolished; since they posed a threat to the successful implementation of Hitler’s economic policies. 1934 1) THE NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES (JUNE 30th 1934) 54 Satirical cartoon Condemning the move towards violence THE NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES JUNE 30th 1934 (or “Operation Hummingbird”) What was the Night of the Long Knives? This was Hitler’s revenge against potential opponents of the Nazi Regime (= ‘government’), past and present including the head of the S.A. or Brownshirts Ernst Rohm and the former ‘traitors’ Von Kahr and Gregor Strasser. Estimates of the number of murders vary, but there may have been as many as 400. The ‘executioners’ were the S.S. (Blackshirts) and Gestapo. Brownshirt (SA) Gestapo officer Himmler leader of the SS (Blackshirt) Revision Hints In the exam you may have to use this topic in two possible ways: As a single paragraph in a question asking you how Hitler consolidated his power 1933-1934. You might choose your other paragraph as the Reichstag Fire or Enabling Act. A second type of question might just focus on the Night of the Long Knives, so you would need to divide up your information as below. 55 Why was the Night of the Long Knives carried out/why was it important to Hitler? 1. Rohm was becoming a menace – a personal threat to Hitler Rohm had been a strong supporter of Hitler since the Munich Putsch of November 8th and 9th 1923 and became head of the ‘Nazi Army’, the S.A. Yet by 1934 his ambitions were growing and many believed he could displace Hitler. This was especially true as the S.A. now numbered 4 million whilst the regular army was still only 100,000. Rohm’s loyalty was questionable. In February 1934 he referred to Hitler as “the ridiculous corporal” and to the army generals as “a lot of old fogies”. He wanted to become Defence Secretary and use his new powers to merge the regular army with the S.A. Hitler felt he needed to act to safeguard his own position and to prevent damaging divisions opening up inside the Nazi Party. Hitler and Rohm 2. Winning the support of the regular army and businessmen to enable Hitler to carry out his future plans for a “1000 Year Reich” or “Empire.” Hitler realised that Rohm’s views presented not just an immediate threat, but could also block his long term ambitions. The policies of the S.A. were ‘left wing’, edging towards the ideas of the Communists. Hitler knew how this offended the right wing army generals and the rich businessmen who funded the Nazi Party. Moreover, the S.A were violent and undisciplined – not the characteristics needed for a future invasion of mighty Russia. Hitler wanted to present himself as a respectable and responsible leader, and the unruliness of the S.A was preventing this. Thus, Hitler made the decision to move towards the wishes of the regular army to keep alive his dreams of a 1000 Year Reich in the East, created by the united and disciplined German Army. As one historian has stated: “The ‘bully boys’ (the S.A.) had outlived their usefulness to Hitler.” 56 The British cartoon below is being SATRICAL (i.e. ridiculing the event). It is using humour to condemn Hitler’s actions. Therefore, the traditional one handed Nazi salute has become a twohanded gesture, signifying the “surrender” of S.A. authority. The S.A. leaders are shown as dead. Note Hitler’s personal responsibility, with a smoking revolver in his hand and the “double cross” arm band, signifying his violent betrayal of former friends. The cartoon also ridicules the Aryan image, with a Nordic (Aryan) warrior, the security minister GOERING, threatening with a blood stained spear. Meanwhile, the Propaganda Minister GOEBBELS, another of Hitler’s accomplices, cowers behind Hitler on all fours. THIS CARTOON IS A REGULAR EXAM FAVOURITE! A British cartoon from July 1934, about the Night of the Long Knives in June 1934. The caption with the cartoon was, ‘They salute with both hands now.’ 57 DAVID LOW’S cartoons can be recognised by his signature at the bottom. Below is another satirical attack on the Nazi regime. It is also set in 1934 but earlier than the last one. Low critically reflects on the progressive move towards dictatorship since January 1933. This would include Hitler’s manipulation of the Reichstag Fire incident, the Enabling Act, loss of civil liberties, banning of Trade Unions, Political Parties etc, evaluate the cartoon very carefully. A cartoon published in 1934 58 3) THE DEATH OF HINDENBURG (AUGUST 1934) Hitler became Fuhrer on 19th August 1934 When Hindenburg died In August 1934, Hitler combined the 2 offices of Chancellor and President and re-titled himself FUHRER (leader). The dictatorship was now complete and Germany was on the path to becoming a TOTALITARIAN STATE (see P1), with Hitler in control. To show its gratitude for the Night of the Long Knives, the army swore an oath of obedience to Hitler. In 1935 the army was re-named the WEHRMACHT and was directly controlled by Hitler. The Army’s oath of Loyalty “I swear by God this sacred oath, that I will render unconditional obedience to the Fuhrer of the German Reich and people, Adolf Hitler, the supreme commander of the Armed Forces, and will be ready as a brave soldier to risk my life at any time for this oath.” 59 KEEPING CONTROL OF THE GERMAN PEOPLE (1933 – 1945) TERROR PROPAGANDA THE ECONOMY STRENGTH THROUGH JOY 60 The ‘carrot and the stick’ 61 HOW DID HITLER KEEP CONTROL OF THE GERMAN PEOPLE AFTER 1933? Hitler maintained his authority through a combination of persuasion and terror – a ‘carrot and stick’ approach. It is difficult to judge which of these had the greatest impact. (A) THE ‘STICK’ – NAZI TERROR Force and intimidation deterred the Germans from openly opposing Hitler. This ‘terror’ came in different forms:- 1) THE S.S. (SCHUTZSTAFFEL OR BLACKSHIRTS) This was formed in 1925 as an offshoot of the S.A. It’s members rose rapidly and it replaced the S.A. after the ‘Night of the Long Knives’ in June 1934. The S.S. became Hitler’s instrument of terror, crushing any opposition with unlimited powers of arrest without trial, searching homes and confiscating property. Under their leader, HIMMLER, this elite group did much to suppress and deter opposition to the Nazis. The S.S. would become responsible for running the Concentration Camps and had its own Security Service (S.D.) which operated a network of spies and informers. 62 2) THE GESTAPO (secret state police) The Gestapo also came under Himmler’s control after 1936. This non-uniformed group used spies and informers to detect any traces of opposition and was the most feared of the Nazi terror organisations. The S.S. were visible by their black uniform – but it was impossible to know who was a member of the Gestapo. Gestapo badge 3) THE LEGAL SYSTEM The legal system came under the strict control of the Nazi regime after 1934 when the so-called PEOPLE’S COURT was established. Between 1934 and 1939, 534 ‘enemies’ were sentenced to death while 160,000 more remained under arrest. 4) CONCENTRATION CAMPS (The KZs) The first of these camps was built at DACHAU near Munich and several more followed. Political prisoners were detained and were subjected to brutal beatings. Some opponents were subtly allowed to leave the camps – to spread the message that opposition and resistance did not pay. To most Germans, obedience seemed preferable to the risk of becoming another victim of the Nazi terror. In 1939 there were 132 thousand people in Nazi Concentration Camps 63 (B) THE ‘CARROT’ – EXAMPLE 1 – NAZI PROPAGANDA Between 1929-1933, the Depression years, JOSEPH GOEBBELS had shown the huge potential of carefully constructed propaganda (posters, radio, rallies, speeches etc) operating from the Propaganda Ministry in Berlin. Now propaganda was to be used to consolidate (strengthen) support for the Nazi regime. The process of intensive persuasion is called INDOCTRINATION and had a huge impact on maintaining the popularity of the Nazi regime. Examples:- Radio Radio was a decisive weapon employed by the Nazis. 70% of Germans had a radio and programmes targeted all groups (A sectoral appeal) from adults to young children. It was an ideal medium to influence the nation through carefully selected news programmes and Hitler’s speeches. Marches / parades Hitler used these to convey an image of German utility, all marching together for a common cause. Torchlight parades and mass rallies were particularly atmospheric. Albert Speer was a key figure in the organisation of the rallies. Films 64 The Nazis exploited the popularity of the cinema, producing 200 propaganda films. A range of techniques were used, from comedy to shocking the public. A key example was the vehemently anti-Semitic “THE ETERNAL JEW” in 1937. Newspapers Strict censorship meant that any anti-Nazi messages were suppressed. The Nazis printed their own newspapers e.g. the VOLKISCHER BEOBACHTER and DER STURMER. Posters A combination of national and sectoral appeals promoted to the Nazi messages. Key themes included: The importance of family Patriotism / Nationalism Promoting the image of Hitler Anti-Semitism One of the most anti-Semitic posters is shown below:- Note: The distorted features 65 The Communist symbol on the map of Germany. Another indication of the supposed Communist / Jewish “world plot”. The Whip. Money – gained at the expense of the German people. The title “The ETERNAL Jew”. (B) THE ‘CARROT’ – METHOD 2 – REVIVING THE GERMAN ECONOMY The “GREAT DEPRESSION” (1929-1933) had accelerated the end of the Weimar Republic. In order to appease the German people and top gain credibility, it was vital that Hitler could revive the German economy and improve living standards. Hitler achieved this in 2 main ways:- 1) Reduce unemployment Hitler certainly kept his promise of helping people find jobs. In 1933 (when Hitler came to power), unemployment stood at 6,000,000 (6 million). By 1939 it stood at only 300,000 (3 hundred thousand). This was largely achieved by initiating job-creation schemes e.g. building houses and motorways (AUTOBAHNS). Others became part of the German army when CONSCRIPTION was introduced in 1935. Unemployment 1921-1939 (note the rapid decrease) 2) Improving the lives of the workers (despite harsher conditions) However, in some respects, working conditions became harsher, with trade unions banned (May 1933), the freezing of pay and longer working hours. Hitler won over the potentially hostile working classes by offering incentives e.g. the BEAUTY OF FAITH organisation provided factory workers with washrooms, clean conditions and canteens. 66 Strength through joy (kraft Durch Freude – KDF) Hitler also created a ‘Feel Good Factor’ by offering the Germans special privileges through the ‘Strength through Joy’ movement Hitler and the Nazis wanted to control every part of people’s lives, even their spare or leisure time. They worked out that the average German spent between seven and eight hours a day sleeping and about six hours a day working. With typical Nazi efficiency, they calculated that ordinary Germans had about 10¼ hours a day free for leisure. This totalled 3740 hours a year. Hitler gave a doctor called Robert Ley the task of filling this spare time and making sure it wasn’t wasted. Conclusion The combination of solving unemployment, Beauty of Faith and Strength through Joy drew attention away from the more violent aspects of the new regime, and gave the disillusioned German population genuine hope. 67 YOUTH POLICY LONG TERM AIMS YOUTH ORGANISATIONS INDOCTRINATION IN SCHOOLS PROPAGANDA REBEL GANGS DURING WORLD WAR II 68 NAZI POLICIES TOWARDS THE YOUTH “The young belong to me.” (Adolf Hitler) The aims of Nazi youth policies Young people, both boys and girls, were vitally important to Hitler. Ensure that you could give a full explanation of each of the following reasons:1. Hitler was aiming for a ‘1000 YEAR REICH’ (empire). The youth of Germany would be the foundation for this. Therefore, they must grow up to be supremely loyal to carry Nazi ideology into the future. Hitler expected to fight the mighty SOVIET UNION (RUSSIA) in a future war. On a territorial and military level and, given the huge population advantage held by the Soviet Union, this seemed a daunting task. Therefore, young boys must learn to be fearless, strong, obedient and loyal while healthy girls would be the providers of future army recruits. 2. Children must learn to be ANTI-SEMITIC to break the supposed hold of the Jews within Germany. (Remember Hitler’s notion of a “Jewish world conspiracy.”) The youth should be submerged into the belief in an ARYAN or MASTER RACE which was not tainted by lesser races or cultures. (Untermenschen). This indoctrination of young minds could be achieved via education and Nazi youth organisations, such as the Hitler Youth and League of German Maidens. 69 HOW DID HITLER ATTEMPT TO INDOCTRINATE/ INFLUENCE YOUNG PEOPLE? METHOD (1) YOUTH ORGANISATIONS Nazi youth organisations were separated by gender since they had very different roles in the future Reich (empire). (A) BOYS – HITLER YOUTH (HITLER JUGEND OR H.J.) The main organisation was the Hitler Youth for 14-18 year olds. These boys were given military style training, had to march long distances with heavy packs, learnt self defence, how to drive cars and fly gliders and were taught to shoot small bore rifles and pistols. In short, boys were being prepared to be the warriors of the “1000 year Reich”. Every H.J. member was issued with a dagger. Encouraging ‘team’ work – tug of war Hitler Youth camp Unity was encouraged by the issue of a distinct uniform and regular drilling. Every summer thousands of H.J. members flocked to Nuremburg to hear the Fuhrer speak about the importance of youth in shaping Germany’s future greatness. 70 (B) GIRLS – LEAGUE OF GERMAN MAIDENS From 10-13 years, girls could enrol in the “League of German Girls” moving up to the LEAGUE OF GERMAN MAIDENS (B.D.M.) from 14-18 (hopefully followed by marriage!). The emphasis was on the ideals of womanhood, focusing on health and fitness, no smoking or make up and lessons in CHILDCARE. By 1935 the B.D.M. had 1.5 million members. Physical fitness was essential if girls were to develop into strong mothers, with healthy children, as the photograph below illustrates:- Javelin throwers in the League of German Maidens. Girls also had to run 60 metres in 14 seconds, throw a ball 12 metres, complete somersaults, a tightrope walk and a two hour march or swim 100 metres; and know how to make a bed. 71 METHOD (2) EDUCATION School children giving the Nazi salute Education was seen as a further instrument of indoctrination. The process gradually intensified, backed by the fact that teachers had to join the NAZI TEACHER’S ASSOCIATION. Students at schools continued to be taught the same subjects, but each one was twisted slightly to give it a Nazi emphasis. Below are listed some of the subtle changes which occurred in the classroom. SUBJECT PROPAGANDA Physical Education Military training, fitness for motherhood, team work, discouraging weakness. Biology To teach the young about breeding and heredity, the importance of racial purity and the superiority of the Aryan race. History Mathematics Showing youngsters the greatness of Germany through a study of her battles, the bravery and heroism of German soldiers, and the greatness of Hitler in his struggle to become Germany’s Führer. Using ‘simple’ arithmetic questions to brainwash children into accepting the purifying nature of warfare, the inferiority of minority groups, and many other Nazi ideas. Physics Teaching students about the effects of poison gases, missile trajectories. Race studies (a new subject) The superiority of Nordic/Aryan man and the dangers of mixing with lower races and Jews. Religious Studies became optional, and the Nazis discouraged head teachers from placing too much emphasis on Christian ideas in their schools. 72 The concept of the German ‘master race’ was emphasised regularly in lessons and text books. Note the exaggerated distinction drawn between the Aryan German and Jew below:- From a Nazi children’s book Some subjects were taken by both boys and girls e.g. German, but there was a more clearly domestic menu for girls. Note, however, the continued importance of sport and fitness – vital for child-rearing! Typical weekly study timetable for a Berlin schoolgirl aged 13 Period Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday 8.00-8.45 German German German German German German 8.50-9.35 Geography History Singing Geography 9.40-10.25 Race Study Race Study Race Study Race Study History Party Beliefs Singing Party Beliefs 10.25-11.00 Break Domestic Science with maths Break Domestic Science with maths Break Domestic Science with maths Health Biology Break Domestic Science with maths Break Domestic Science with maths Health Biology 11.00-12.05 12.10-12.55 Eugenics Break Domestic Science with maths Health Biology Eugenics Eugenics During break there would be sports and special announcements. There was organised sport every afternoon from 2.00 pm – 6.00 pm 73 METHOD (3) PROPAGANDA Radio programmes were targeted at the young as well as old, to ensure that Nazi ideals were promoted. Similarly, posters were employed to influence the youth. The poster below celebrates the burning of anti-Nazi books by the youth of Germany in 1936, another calculated propaganda stunt. Members of the Hitler Youth burn books which the Nazis do not like. Onto the fire goes any book written by a Jew or a Communist, all the books which disagree with Nazi ideas, and any book the Nazis think is ‘soft’ or rude. HOW SUCCESSFUL WERE THE NAZI POLICIES? 74 1) Successes Nazi policies were to a major extent successful. Many found the youth movements to be an exciting and liberating experience. By 1939 82% of young boys had joined the Hitler Youth. As the military campaigns of World War II showed the great bulk of young German soldiers were indeed fearlessly effective. During World War II the loyal youth took on more and more responsibilities such as air-raid duties, operating search lights anti-aircraft batteries. Membership of the youth groups remained high, despite the military reverses after the defeat at Stalingrad in 1942. Hitler Youth operating searchlight 2) Failures However, not all the youth responded to Nazi indoctrination. This was particularly the case during WORLD WAR II (1939-45) when it became easier to oppose the regime (government). Rebel gangs began to appear. e.g. The Raving Dudes Navajos Edelweiss Pirates Kittle Bach Pirates Swing Kids Some of these were openly disloyal: Sheltering Allied pilots that were shot down and helping them back to Britain Putting leaflets, dropped by Allied planes, into letter boxes Listening to illegal BBC radio broadcasts and jazz music Adopting ‘undesirable’ fashions, such as long hair, lipstick – and even smoking! Public graffiti e.g. ‘Down with Hitler’ The penalties for such ‘disloyalty’ were severe. Hitler Youth on parade 75 WOMEN IN NAZI GERMANY (1933-1945) ROLES LONG TERM AIMS BENEFITS LOSSES CHANGE IN POLICY IN W.W. II 76 WOMEN IN NAZI GERMANY (1933-1945) “The ideal woman is one who, above all, is capable of being a mother.” (The Nazi Rudolf Hess) Male and Female roles Rules were clearly defined: Men were destined to work and fight. They were the warriors of the “Third Reich” or “1000 rear Reich”. Women were needed to support their men and to raise radically pure (Aryan) children. The Nazi slogan of “KINDER” (children), “KIRCHE” (church), and “KUCHE” (kitchen) summed up Nazi policy towards women. The diagram overleaf illustrates this clearly. 77 A NAZI PROPAGANDA POSTER SHOWING HOW THE NAZIS SAW THE ROLE OF WOMEN. 78 Opposition parties, particularly during the hectic electioneering of the Depression years (19291933), were quick to exploit what they called the “oppressive” Nazi policy towards women. A Social Democrat poster published in 1931. Writing on the poster said, “Women, this is what it will be like in the ‘Third Reich’! Your reply should be: Fight the Nazis for Social Democracy!” The Nazis countered these criticisms with the claim that women were in fact:“Different but equal” and were certainly valued. As Hitler stated in 1934: “Woman has her battlefield too; with each child that she brings into the world for the nation, she is fighting her fight on behalf of the nation.” 79 WHY DID THE NAZIS TARGET WOMEN? 1) Social Darwinism (This is also a reason for Nazi racial policy see the later section) According to Hitler, the ‘Aryan’ or ‘Nordic’ race was the ‘Master’ race – and would triumph over such ‘inferior races’ as the Jews and Slavs. Racial purity was essential to this and women had a vital role to play. They were to rear a new generation of Aryan children. Mixed marriages were forbidden by the Nuremburg Laws of 1935 – a further step towards the creation of a perfect race. Young women would be encouraged to promote this policy by attending the ‘baby farms’ or LEBENSBORN - where they would ‘mate’ with a member of the SS. 2) Producing a strong new generation to help create the 1000 Year Reich Racial policy was closely linked in with Hitler’s military ambition, the creation of a 1000 Year Reich (Empire) by conquering Poland and the Soviet Union. Only healthy children born to healthy mothers would be capable of fulfilling such a formidable task. Therefore, women would become a priority in the new Germany with their own organisation (e.g. ‘Faith and Beauty’) and incentives to adopt a domestic role, such as marriage loans and child benefits. Ultimately, from this, the birth rate would rise and the chances of a successful war in the East would increase. 80 Nazi policies in action After 1933 women were encouraged to give up their jobs and have large families. Target groups included women doctors, civil servants and teachers. If women assumed a domestic role, they were given LOANS of up to 1000 marks. The “MOTHER’S CROSS” was introduced in 1938 to encourage large families. ‘The Honour cross of the German Mother’. This was awarded to women as follows: Gold for eight children Silver for six children Bronze for four children Holders of the award were given an honoured place at Nazi meetings Contraception and abortion were made illegal. WHY DID THE NAZIS HAVE THESE POLICIES? 1) Hitler was afraid that the GERMAN POPULATION was growing too slowly and was falling behind countries like POLAND and RUSSIA. If the Third Reich (1000 year Reich) was to be created, huge armed forces would be needed. This emphasis on a HIGH BIRTH RATE was a more extreme form of the general alarm across Europe at slow population growth. France was already rewarding mothers who had more children. 2) The Nazis did not want any more marriages between Germans and “inferior” people (UNTERMENSCHEN) like the Jews. More birth among “pure” Aryan Germans would help to create the “Master Race”. Special baby farms or LEBENSBORN would enable the mating of Aryan women and blonde S.S. men. 81 DID WOMEN GAIN FROM NAZI POLICIES? (Make sure you could manipulate the following material to be able to answer a question on “How successful were Nazi policies towards women.”) (A) GAINS (On the other hand…….) Membership of the Nazi “FAITH AND BEAUTY” organisation was high. Many were enticed by the feeling of liberation and togetherness. By 1936 there were 30% more births than there had been in 1933. Financial inducements, such as MARRIAGE LOANS and CHILD BENEFIT were warmly received. If a woman had eight or more children, state benefits would actually amount to more than her husband’s monthly wage. Observers at Nazi rallies testified to the large number of women screaming in support and hoping to touch Hitler. He received countless offers from women who wanted to have his children. Hitler idolised by crowd 82 (B) LOSSES (In other respects…..) Some women resented the loss of PROFESSIONAL EMPLOYMENT (e.g. doctors, lawyers, teachers) and joined secret opposition groups like the Social Democrats and Communists. Certain female groups were negatively targeted. STERILISATION was introduced for women who suffered from epilepsy, blindness, deafness or were physically handicapped or alcoholics. When WORLD WAR TWO broke out in 1939, the Nazis had to quickly change their policy towards women. Women were now needed to fill men’s jobs. However, factory work for women meant low wages and long hours. Most women stayed at home (as the Nazis had told them to do before). This greatly weakened the German war effort. The later stages of the war put immense pressures on mothers. 6 million dead German soldiers and intensive bombing of German cities took many mothers close to breaking point. Bomb victims in Mannheim, 1944. By the end of the War many people lived in ruined buildings 83 POLICY TOWARDS THE JEWS (Anti-Semitism) REASONS FOR PERSECUTION OTHER TARGETED GROUPS ANTI-SEMITIC ACTIONS (1933-1945) 84 THE PERSECUTION OF MINORITY GROUPS N.B. this summary mainly concentrates on Hitler’s persecution of the Jews – the policy of ANTISEMITISM. WHY DID THE NAZIS PERSECUTE THE JEWS AND OTHER MINORITIES? (This is the most commonly asked question in the Examination) REASON 1 – SOCIAL DARWINISM Hitler believed in Social Darwinism or the “survival of the fittest”: “All of nature is one big struggle between strength and weakness”. (Hitler, 1923) In Hitler’s eyes, the ARYAN or NORDIC race was the strongest and was destined to be the MASTER RACE (HERRENVOLK). The Aryans were superior because of their intelligence, capacity to work hard and willingness to sacrifice themselves for their country. His ultimate aim was to create a national community or VOLK of pure Aryans. The weak were the Jews and other ‘inferior’ races (UNTERMENSCHEN) such as the Slavs. Social Darwinist theory stated that these were not ‘fit’ enough to survive and would need to be removed from the Volk, through persecution and a programme of selective breeding e.g. by using the LEBENSBORN or “baby farms” and the teaching of Eugenics in schools. REASON 2 – THE “INTERNATIONAL JEWISH CONSPIRACY”. The Nazis developed the concept of a world wide Jewish plot or conspiracy to corrupt and bring down the governments of the leading nations and then establish Jewish control. This was portrayed as an age-old, on-going struggle to bring down governments from within – as vividly shown in the 1937 film – the “External Jew”. Supposedly, the conspiracy was well under way in Germany, with Hitler labelling the Weimar Republic the “Jew Republic”. He could point to a list of destructive actions: “Stabbing the German army in the back” by Surrendering in November 1918 Signing the detested Treaty of Versailles On June 28th 1919 Bringing Germany under the control of Jewish money lenders during the “Golden Age” e.g. The Dawes Plan Causing the Wall Street Crash and Depression. Hitler promised to destroy the Jewish conspiracy and “rescue” Germany. 85 86 OTHER GROUPS TARGETED (You will only rarely be asked to deal with these) The following groups were thought to threaten the purity of the Aryan race and to undermine the creation of a national Volk: (1) GYPSIES targeted because of their mixed-race and “idle” lifestyles. (2) THE INSANE viewed also as a threat to Aryan purity. A programme of sterilisation was introduced, followed by euthanasia. (3) TRAMPS AND BEGGARS contributed nothing to the Community either through work or the creation of wealth. (4) HOMOSEXUALS this group conflicted with the perfect Aryan image and they were forced to wear a distinctive pink badge. (5) ALCOHOLICS were considered to be a drain on the Community and had their heads shaved or were sent to concentration camps 87 ANTI-SEMITIC MEASURES 1933-1945 The main point to understand is that anti-Semitic policy and actions did not remain the same – but instead developed and intensified between 1933 and 1945. Below are some key examples: Stage 1 – The denial of civil Rights 1933-1938 April 1st 1933 In April there was an official one day Boycott of Jewish shops, lawyers and doctors all over Germany. Anti-Semitic sign reading, “Jews are unwanted here” Germany circa 1935-1945 1935 Jews were forbidden to join the army. September – the Nuremberg Laws. Marriage between Jews and Aryans banned. - Reich Citizenship Law – Jews lost their German citizenship. Stage 2 – the acceleration of persecution 1938-1941 1938 November 9th-10th KRISTALLNACHT (night of the Broken Glass) A German diplomat, Ernst Von Rath, was murdered in Paris by a Jew. Goebbels (hoping to impress Hitler) organised an attack on Jews and their property. About 400 synagogues and 7500 Jewish businesses were destroyed. 91 Jews were killed and 30,000 sent to concentration camps. Stage 3 – World War II 1939-1945 World War II allowed the Nazis to pursue more extreme anti-Semitic policies. 1939 – Jews were moved into GHETTOS in city centres, cut off from the rest of the population. Only 300 calories of food were allowed per day. 1941 – 45 - THE HOLOCAUST – the German invasion of the U.S.S.R brought many more Jews under Nazi control. At some point during 1941-42 (perhaps at the January 1942 WANNSEE CONFERENCE) the decision was taken to kill all the Jews in extermination camps such as AUSCHWITZ. Altogether about 6 million Jews were murdered (shot or gassed). 88 89 OPPOSITION TO THE NAZIS WHY WAS THERE SO LITTLE OPPOSITION? LEFT WING GROUPS YOUTH GROUPS THE CHURCHES THE ARMY SUPPORTERS AND OPPONENTS 90 OPPOSITION TO THE NAZIS Key question 1 WHY WAS THERE SO LITTLE OPEN OPPOSITION TO THE NAZIS? (N.B. ‘open’ = PUBLIC, as opposed to secret, opposition). 1) FEAR – Nazi terror (see previous notes on this). The S.S and GESTAPO created an intimidating atmosphere which deterred opposition. Punishments, given out by the PEOPLE’S COURT, were extremely severe. The key political opposition parties had been banned in July 1933 via the Enabling Act. 2) PROPAGANDA (see previous section on this). The Propaganda Minister, JOSEPH GOEBBELS, successfully deflected criticism from the Nazis using creative and persuasive propaganda techniques. In addition, any anti-Nazi propaganda was viciously CENSORED. A 1930s poster entitled ‘Long Live Germany’ 91 3) SUCCESSFUL ECONOMIC POLICIES (see previous notes) Nazi economic policies helped many Germans and limited their reasons for grumbling. Unemployment was radically reduced from a peak of 6 million in 1932. Nazi economic achievements, such as the AUTOBAHNS (motorways) were impressive. The STRENGTH THROUGH JOY MOVEMENT provided attractive incentives for workers. A poster advertising the German autobahns If you went against Hitler’s word you would risk immediate arrest and imprisonment 92 Key question 2 HOW SUCCESSFULLY DID THE NAZIS DEAL WITH OPPOSITION GROUPS? 1) LEFT WING GROUPS (the Social Democrats and Communists). Left wing opposition was severely weakened when the Social Democrat and Communist parties were banned in July 1933. Instead of uniting in opposition, they remained deeply DIVIDED which made them even more ineffective. The Social Democrats were reduced to organising small groups and starting whispering campaigns, while the Communists wrongly assumed that Hitler would quickly fall. Therefore the dozens of small-scale resistance groups, such as the RED ORCHESTRA, had only a negligible (insignificant) impact. 2) YOUTH GROUPS (see earlier section on this) Some young Germans were opposed to the regimented style of the Nazi youth organisations, such as Hitler Youth and League of German Maidens. Examples of alternative opposition groups are the EDELWEISS PIRATES (see below) KITTELBACH PIRATES and the NAVAJOS. Their activities spread during the war years (1939-1945). In Munich the WHITE ROSE movement of university students worked against Nazis by distributing leaflets. An Edelweiss Pirate group who call themselves ‘The Navajos’ The White Rose Group (left to right: Hans Scholl, Sophie Scholl, Christopher Probst) 93 These groups clearly had some success and managed to survive. Many took delight in intimidating Hitler Youth members. The Nazis dealt ferociously with gang members who appeared to help the Allied war effort e.g. by distributing anti-Nazi leaflets. 3) THE CHURCHES The Nazis saw the Christian Church (Protestant and Catholic) as a threat to their control over Germany’s way of life. Hitler took some of the sting out of the opposition by signing an agreement (the CONCORDAT) with the Catholic Church in 1933. However, the Nazi policy of EUTHANASIA (‘mercy killing’ of the insane) soon brought him into conflict with the churches. The Catholic CARDINAL GALEN (below) condemned Nazi policies. 94 Pastor Niemoller The protestant MARTIN NIEMOLLER upset Hitler by establishing the CONFESSIONAL CHURCH, for which he was placed in a concentration camp. However, Hitler was only partly successful in SUPPRESSING (limiting) church control. Nearly 43 million Protestants and 2 million Catholics retained their allegiance (loyalty) to their respective churches in 1939. 4) THE ARMY The loyalty of the army (the WEHRMACHT) was theoretically assured once it took an oath of obedience to Hitler in 1934, recognising him as Fuhrer. Hitler brought more and more Nazi ideas into the army (e.g. racial policies) and set up the WAFFEN S.S. The great victories in the West (e.g. the defeat of France) during 1940 and initial successes in the East against Russia (1941-1942) cemented Hitler’s popularity. However, a succession of defeats from 1942 (e.g. Stalingrad), brought the first real doubts about his leadership qualities. Some generals plotted to remove Hitler e.g. ROMMEL. Hitler narrowly escaped a bomb plot organised by COUNT VON STAUFFENBERG in 1944 (the ‘July Plot’). The conspirators were hanged with piano wire. Picture of Tom Cruise playing him in the film‘Valkyrie’ Erwin Rommel Count Von Stauffenberg IMPORTANT REVISION HINT You are given extra marks if you are able to PRIORITISE your answers in the examination i.e. to arrange them in rank order and justify them. So with which of the 4 sources of opposition explained on P3 to 5 did Hitler deal most successfully and WHY? 95 Key examination questions:- WHICH GROUPS SUPPORTED HITLER AND WHICH OPPOSED HIM? (Sometimes this question is worded “Who gained from Hitler’s policies and who lost out?” Weak candidates tend to talk about the ‘German people’ in general rather than to precisely differentiate between groups. The following table should help you to produce a more exact answer. NAZI SUPPORTERS NAZI OPPONENTS BUSINESSMEN - as the Nazis suppressed the Communists and revived the economy (e.g. the 4 Year Plan of 1936). MINORITY GROUPS - Jews, gypsies beggars, black people, and homosexuals. These groups were persecuted as they did not fit into the idea of a ‘master race’ or Aryan race. UNEMPLOYED – the Nazis found jobs for the 6 million unemployed. LEFT WING GROUPS – e.g. the Social Democrats and Communists who were banned in July 1933. PATRIOTIC GERMANS – e.g. ex-soldiers disillusioned by Germany’s defeat in W.W.1. Hitler’s rejection of the Treaty of Versailles (1935) and victories in W.W.2 (1939-1941) gained support THE CHURCHES – led by Cardinal Galen and Martin Niemoller. WOMEN – e.g. those who wanted a career e.g. doctors and lawyers. FARMERS – Hitler encouraged the farmers and saw them as true Aryans. - most farmers stayed loyal to the end YOUNG PEOPLE - who rejected the constraints of the Nazi youth groups (give examples). WOMEN – many women liked the emphasis on the family and supported the drive towards increasing family sizes. ARMY LEADERS – e.g. Rommel and Von Stauffenberg after Germany’s military defeats ((1942 onwards). YOUNG PEOPLE - many boys and girls willingly joined the Nazi youth organisations e.g. the Hitler Youth and the League of German Maidens. 96