Download Germany 1918-1945 revision guide

GERMANY
1918-1945
REVISION GUIDE
Hitler Youth Propaganda Poster
Propaganda Poster
MAIN CONTENTS
Pages
1. GERMANY IN CRISIS 1918-1923
3 - 29
2. THE GOLDEN AGE 1924-1929
30 - 37
3. HITLER’S RISE TO POWER 1929-1933
38 - 47
4. CONSOLIDATION OF POWER 1933-1934
48 - 57
5. KEEPING CONTROL OF THE GERMAN PEOPLE 1933-1945
58 - 65
6. YOUTH POLICY 1933-1945
66 - 73
7. POLICY TOWARDS WOMEN 1933-1945
74 - 81
8. ANTI-SEMITIC POLICIES 1933-1945
82 -87
9. OPPOSITION TO HITLER 1933-1945
88 - 94
2
GERMANY
IN CRISIS
(1918-1923)
STAB IN THE BACK
TREATY OF VERSAILLES
THE RUHR CRISIS
HYPERINFLATION
MUNICH PUTSCH
3
KEY EVENTS 1918-1923
(A good place to start your revision of this period)
1918
WORLD WAR ONE
1919
Nov 11th – German government (‘November Criminals’) surrendered against
the army’s wishes (‘Stab in the back’)
Feb – Weimar Republic formed
June 28th – Treaty of Versailles
1920
Nazi Party formed (Extreme right wing group)
1921
Reparations figure of £6.6 billion announced. Triggers hyperinflation
1922
HYPERINFLATION
1923
Jan – French and Belgian troops invaded the Ruhr
HYPERINFLATION INTENSIFIED
Nov 8th to 9th 1923 – Munich Putsch
1924
4
EARLY
PROBLEMS
(1918-1921)
5
WEAKNESSES OF THE NEW WEIMAR REPUBLIC
(1) THE POLITICAL SYSTEM
On paper, Germany had become a perfect democracy (= a system based on elections and
votes), with the people having a much greater say in the way the country was run. For example, the
head of state – the PRESIDENT and the German parliament, the REICHSTAG – were elected
directly by the people.
6
7
However, this so-called ‘perfect’ political system had major weaknesses:
It was based on a voting system called PROPORTIONAL REPRESENTATION, which meant
that the size of parties in the REICHSTAG (Parliament) reflected the number of votes that they
received.
The parties that supported the new Weimar Republic, such as the Social Democrats and
People’s Party, did form the majority. However some smaller, more extreme parties like the
Communists (K.P.D.) and Nazis (N.S.D.A.P.) were also elected to the Reichstag and they wanted to
destroy the Weimar Republic from the very beginning.
8
(2) BLAME FOR THE GERMAN DEFEAT IN WORLD WAR ONE
The new republican government was criticised for the surrender at the end of World War
One (Nov 11th 1918). Propaganda during the war had claimed that Germany was winning and so
the news of defeat came as a great shock.
The army leader, LUDENDORFF, stated that the army could have fought on – but was
betrayed by cowardly politicians who made peace too early. This ‘betrayal’ of the German army by
its own government (the ‘November Criminals’) became known as the “STAB IN THE BACK.”
For the enemies of the Weimar Republic, such as the Nazis and Nationalists, this ‘myth’ became a
powerful weapon to show how unpatriotic the government was.
9
(3) THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES (June 28th 1919)
The Versailles (spell correctly!) peace treaty that officially ended World War One was
extremely harsh and reflected the French President, CLEMENCEAU’s determination to severely
punish and weaken Germany. From the German perspective, it was a DIKTAT or dictated treaty,
which they had been forced to sign without negotiation.
This further intensified the feeling in Germany that their own government was
bringing shame and humiliation to the country.
(A) WAR GUILT AND REPARATIONS
Through ARTICLE 231, Germany was given the total blame for causing World war
One. The Germans were outraged, claiming the war had been an international conflict and that
Germany had only acted in ‘self defence’.
Since Germany was given complete blame for the war, she was forced to pay ‘war
damages’ or REPARATIONS which were announced in 1921 to be £6.6 billion. To most
Germans, this seemed to be extremely unjust, particularly as they had lost 10% of their industry and
15% of their agricultural land in the treaty.
10
(B) MILITARY RESTRICTIONS
Clemenceau (the French President) intended that Germany should never again have
the military capability to threaten France and so the terms were once again severe:
Germany could only have a tiny ARMY of 100,000 men –making the country extremely
vulnerable.

The NAVY was reduced to 15,000 sailors, 6 battleships and no submarines.

Germany’s AIRFORCE was completely disbanded.

Conscription (forcing men into the army) was forbidden.
Result – Germany’s proud military reputation, established during the 2nd Reich under the Kaiser,
was now in tatters and patriotic Germans were deeply offended.
(C) TERRITORIAL LOSSES
Altogether, Germany lost 13% of its land and 6 million of its people.

This included the rich industrial regions of ALSACE-LORRAINE.

To give Poland access to the sea, Germany had to surrender the territory of POSEN – but
this split Germany into two.

German troops were forbidden to enter the RHINELAND (a sensitive area on the French
border) for 15 years.

All of Germany’s overseas COLONIES were taken away.
Result – The Treaty of Versailles reinforced the idea that Germany’s government was disloyal
and was “stabbing their own country in the back.”
11
GERMAN REACTIONS TO THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES –
- POLITICAL PROPAGANDA CARTOONS
(A)
A German cartoon showing the Devil and his cronies gloating over the
terms of The Treaty of Versailles
12
(B)
A cartoon published in a German newspaper in July 1919. It shows Clemenceau,
Prime Minister of France, as a vampire feeding on Germany.
13
(C)
A German poster protesting at Germany’s military weakness as a result of the Versailles Treaty.
14
(D)
A sympathetic British cartoon
15
FIRST
CHALLENGES
TO THE
WEIMAR REPUBLIC
1919-1920
THE SPARTACISTS
KAPP’S PUTSCH
16
EARLY THREATS TO THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC 1919-1920
The new Weimar Republic quickly came under attack from extreme left and right wing groups who
wanted to destroy the democratic system.
1. THREAT FROM THE LEFT – THE SPARTACIST (COMMUNIST) REVOLT OF
JANUARY 1919
This was a poorly organised rising against the government led by ROSA LUXEMBURG and
KARL LEIBKNECHT. They feared that the new republic would be built on capitalist (profit
making) ideas which would favour the rich over the working classes. If possible, they wanted to
create a communist republic similar to the one created by Lenin in Russia via the October 1917
revolution.
President Ebert then played a gamble that worked. He appealed to the groups of ex-soldiers called
the FREIKORPS to crush the rebellion in Berlin. The uprising was brutally crushed and both Rosa
Luxemburg and Karl Leibknecht were executed after arrest. Although this seemed to be a victory
for the new government, it was playing into the hands of the extreme right wing Freikorps which
itself had contempt for the Weimar republic.
Rosa Luxemburg
Karl Liebknecht
The Spartacist uprising
17
2. THREAT FROM THE RIGHT – THE KAPP PUTSCH (REVOLT) OF MARCH 1920
This right wing Freikorps hated everything about the Weimar Republic – its democratic process and
the humiliating Treaty of Versailles. In March 1920 Dr Wolfgang Kapp led some Freikorps units,
numbering 5000, to seize control of Berlin. They were successful because the regular army refused
to defend the government. The Weimar Republic seemed doomed, to be replaced by a right wing
military dictatorship under Kapp.
As a last resort, the weak government called on the workers to go on strike against the right wing
revolt and a general strike followed. Berlin ground to a halt and key services such as water and
electricity supplies stopped. Within just 4 days Kapp realised that he could not maintain control and
fled. The Weimar republic had survived – but this was only a temporary reprieve. Later under the
Nazi Party, the threat from the extreme right would re-emerge – and finally destroy the republic.
SCENES FROM THE KAPP PUTSCH
Dr Wolfgang Kapp
18
LEBENSRAUM
TREATY OF VERSAILLES
Hitler regarded this Treaty as unfair
and vindictive – a DIKTAT
imposed on Germany by the Allies.
He pledged to destroy its terms if he
came to power, especially its
humiliating articles on War Guilt,
military restrictions and territorial
losses
Hitler believed that Germany’s
rising population (900,000 per
year) needed extra living space or
Lebensraum to expand into. This
would be in the East – conquering
Poland and the U.S.S.R.
SOCIAL DARWINISM
Nazis racial ideology was based on
Charles Darwin’s theory of the
“survival of the fittest”. This
involved a struggle between stronger,
superior races like the Aryan
Germans – and weaker, inferior
groups such as the Jews and Slavs.
They similarly detested Communism
with its emphasis on equality
STRONG RULE
Hitler’s political beliefs/ideology
19
Hitler regarded the idea of democracy,
with its votes and elections, as a sign of
weakness. In this view this was proven
by the performance of the Weimar
Republic. Instead he preferred a
dictatorship, with strong, authoritarian
rules
1923
A VERY
DIFFICULT
YEAR
20
In 1923 two crises threatened the very existence of the Weimar Republic:-
(1) THE RUHR CRISIS
The announcement of the reparation figure (£6.6 billion) in 1921 had triggered
HYPERINFLATION, defined as: “a situation in which the value of money falls extremely quickly
until it becomes worthless.” For example, in 1921 a loaf of bread cost 3.9 Reichsmarks, rising to
165.5 Reichsmarks by 1922.
Germany announced in 1922 that it could not afford to pay the second instalment of
reparations. Therefore in JAN 1923 60,000 French and Belgian soldiers marched into the rich
industrial area of Germany called the RUHR – and began taking reparations by force.
A German poster from 1923. The text means
“Hands off the Ruhr!”
21
The German government did not have the armed forces to resist the invasion and so
ordered the Ruhr workers to go on strike – a policy of ‘PASSIVE RESISTANCE.’
However, the German government could not afford to pay the striking workers and
unwisely decided to print large amounts of money. This led to a loss in confidence in the currency
(the Reichsmark) which in turn accelerated HYPERINFLATION, which became so disastrous that
workers were encouraged to carry their wages in wheelbarrows!
The alarming decline in
value of the German
Reich mark as the result
of hyperinflation
22
Effects of Hyperinflation
There were some winners from hyperinflation – for example people with debts could
easily pay off their loans – often with a single banknote!
However, there were many more losers:

Savers – People’s life savings were wiped out overnight, particularly by Nov 1923 when a
loaf of bread cost 201,000,000,000 Reichsmarks.

Pensioners – Those on fixed pensions found that their incomes were too low to sustain
them.

Businessmen – Daily price rises made running a business impossible.
Many simply went bankrupt.
A woman using bank notes
to start her fire, 1923
German children, in 1923, show
how many German marks are
equal to one US dollar
Results of the Ruhr crisis and Hyperinflation
The Ruhr crisis was extremely damaging for the Weimar Republic. It had seemed weak
in the face of the French and Belgian invasion and reinforced the hatred of the Treaty of Versailles.
Patriotic Germans were particularly appalled and yearned for a return to the days of the Second
Reich (before 1918) and the Kaiser.
23
CRISIS (2) THE MUNICH PUTSCH – NOV 1923
Leaders of the putsch
Hitler and Ludendorff are in the centre, and Röhm
is standing second from the right
24
[A] CAUSES
(Why did Hitler attempt a Putsch in Nov 1923?)
1) End of PASSIVE RESISTANCE during he 1923 Ruhr crisis
The credibility of the Weimar Government had been severely undermined (weakened)
from the moment French troops occupied the Ruhr area of Germany in January 1923. It gave the
impression of weakness, particularly as the crisis intensified the level of HYPERINFLATION.
140 Germans were shot dead during the 8 month occupation. When Stresemann formed a new
government, he abandoned the policy of PASSIVE RESISTANCE. Right wingers (such as the
Nationalists and Nazis) portrayed this as yet another humiliating surrender to Germany’s enemies.
The general dissatisfaction with the Weimar Government convinced Hitler that the time was surely
right for a Nazi takeover (‘a Putsch’).
2) POTENTIAL SUPPORT
If a revolt or putsch was to be successful, it would need the support of the army. Hitler
believed the army would not take much persuasion to abandon the ‘unpatriotic’ Weimar Republic.
After all, the government had “stabbed the army in the back” in Nov 1918, signed the Treaty of
Versailles in June 1919 and allowed French troops to invade the Ruhr in Jan 1923. The former war
hero and army leader, LUDENDORFF, was showing support for Nazi policies. Perhaps he could
bring the army across to Hitler’s side?
Moreover, Hitler appeared to have natural allies in Munich, the seat of the Bavarian State
Government. Under VON KAHR, they were right wing and felt no loyalty to the national
government in Berlin. Hitler felt that the Bavarian Government would transfer its allegiance to him
if he attempted a putsch.
3) The example of MUSSOLINI in Italy
Hitler was heavily influenced by a right wing takeover in Italy just a year earlier (1922) by
the fascist Benito MUSSOLINI. During an ‘heroic’ MARCH ON ROME Italians had abandoned
their loyalty to the central government and supported Mussolini’s cause. Therefore Hitler believed
he could EMULATE (copy) Mussolini’s success and carry out a similar ‘Putsch’ in Germany.
25
Nazis marching into the centre of Munich on the morning of 9 November
The army opens fire on the Nazis
26
[B] EVENTS OF THE MUNICH PUTSCH (8th – 9th NOV 1923)
N.B. A ‘putsch’ = a revolt or uprising
Aims of the Putsch
2 separate stages:-
Stage 1
To seize control of Munich in Bavaria (Southern Germany), securing
an initial stronghold in an area which was notoriously disloyal to the
central government.
Stage 2
To then march on the national government in Berlin and establish
control over Germany. The Weimar Republic would therefore be
overthrown.
The actual events of the Putsch occurred during 2 days: 8th – 9th Nov 1923.
Day 1 Nov 8th

Hitler and 600 storm troopers disrupted a meeting of the Bavarian state government at a beer
hall in Munich. The Bavarian Prime Minister, KAHR, was present.

Hitler declared a ‘national revolution’ and made a passionate speech to the 3000
businessmen in the beer hall.

At gunpoint, Kahr and his ministers were taken into a side room and persuaded to support
Hitler’s proposed putsch.

Hitler, backed by the war hero LUDENDORFF, believed he now had the means to seize
control of Munich the next day.
Day 2 Nov 9th

Kahr escaped during the night and alerted the national government in Berlin.

3000 Nazis, led by Hitler and Ludendorff, marched on Munich.

Hitler hoped the police and army would come over to his side but instead they opened fire,
killing 16 Nazis.

Hitler narrowly escaped and was arrested on a charge of treason 2 days later. The Putsch
had failed.
27
(C) RESULTS / CONSEQUENCES OF THE MUNICH PUTSCH
(1) NEGATIVE OUTCOMES
[a] A‘flawed’ plan
Hitler’s failure in the ‘Putsch’ illustrated that he had clearly over-estimated his own popularity
and abilities and the strength of the Nazi Party. The Putsch portrayed him as a lacking political and
organisational skills (e.g. failing to gain the support of Von Kahr / believing he could gain control
of Munich with just 3000 men). He had not even threatened the capital, Berlin. Imprisoned in
Landsberg Castle, Hitler brought an image of violence to his party, from which it never recovered
until the sudden down swing of the economy triggered by the Oct 1929 Wall Street Crash.
[b] The Nazis – a “Party in tatters”
The Nazi Party almost DISINTEGRATED while Hitler was in Landsberg Prison. Challenges
to Hitler began to appear from within the Party itself. The most serious of these came from a young
Nazi called GREGOR STRASSER who established the so-called “WORKING GROUP”. He
wanted to push the Nazi Party further towards the ‘left’, to include more Socialist and antiCapitalist ideas. If Hitler had not been released from prison early, (after 9 months instead of 5
years), his control over the Nazi Party may have been lost.
(2) POSITIVE OUTCOMES
[a] Publicity
Hitler exploited every opportunity to enhance (boost) his popularity even after the collapse of
the Putsch. During his 24 day trial, he showed himself to be an extremely gifted ORATOR
(speaker), as he spoke out against the “treasonable” Weimar Government. Such actions became
front page news in every national newspaper and even abroad, allowing Hitler’s views and ideology
to become known across Germany for the first time. Hitler was now the most famous of all the
right wing politicians, with a platform for longer term success.
Hitler further promoted his personal image and ideas through the writing of his book “MEIN
KAMPF” (“My Struggle”). It covered many theories about history, politics and race and how
Germany should face the future. “Mein Kampf” would ultimately become a best seller, helping to
strengthen Nazi doctrines across Germany. By 1940 sales had reached 6 million.
28
[b] A change in Strategy
Until 1923, Hitler had believed that a violent strategy, culminating in a ‘Putsch’ (Revolt)
would bring him to power. His time in Landsberg Prison allowed him the opportunity to reevaluate his tactics and he now adopted a policy of “LEGALITY”. This meant, for the first time,
accepting the democratic system of the Weimar Republic and showing himself to a respectable
politician who followed legitimate methods. Like other political parties, he would attempt to gain
votes and win elections. Once the Nazis had become the most important party, Hitler would sweep
away democracy and make himself dictator (as, in fact, happened in 1933-1934.)
Hitler and his fellow Nazis pose for a photograph in Landsberg prison
29
THE
GOLDEN AGE
(1924-1929)
CURRENCY REFORM
THE DAWES PLAN
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
REMAINING PROBLEMS
30
THE ‘GOLDEN AGE OF THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC’
(1924 – 1929)
N.B. This information could be used to answer 3 types of question:
1. What were the SUCCESSES of the Weimar Republic? Why did it survive?
2. Why did the NAZI PARTY fail to make progress before 1929?
3. Did any problems remain during the “Golden Age?”
Flag of the Weimar Republic
_______________________________________________________________________
(A) THE ECONOMIC RECOVERY
1) Currency
By 1923 HYPERINFLATION was reaching its peak and the government’s CREDIBILITY
was severely undermined (weakened), particularly in the eyes of the middle classes. At the end of
the year HANS LUTHER, the Finance Minister, replaced the Reichsmark with a new currency, the
RENTENMARK.
The new Rentenmark
31
Importance

The French agreed to withdraw their forces from the RUHR which they had invaded in Jan
1923 to seize reparations by force.

The hyperinflation ended and FINANCIAL STABILITY returned to Germany.

The Weimar government appeared less weak which made it less vulnerable to attack from
EXTREMIST groups like the N.S.D.A.P. (Nazis) and K.P.D. (Communists).
2) The Dawes Plan of 1924
This was mainly the achievement of GUSTAV STRESEMANN (practise this key
spelling) who was Foreign Minister from 1923 – 1929. Reparation payments were reduced and a
loan of $800 MILLION (dollars) was secured to help Germany recover.
Gustav Stresemann
32
Importance

Germany’s ECONOMIC RECOVERY was sustained which increased public confidence
in the government and its democratic process. The threats of 1923 (e.g. the French
occupation of the RUHR and the MUNICH PUTSCH) began to diminish.

Even though the right wing NAZIS and NATIONAL PARTY condemned the Dawes Plan
as ‘unpatriotic’ and the work of Jewish financiers, support for Hitler faded. The main
reason is that standards of living were improving e.g. 3 MILLON new homes were built in
1928 the Nazis gained only 12 seats in the Reichstag (parliament).

The loans from the U.S.A. via the Dawes Plan promoted a mini-‘INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION’ or ‘ECONOMIC BOOM’ in Germany. Factories were supplied with the
most modern machinery and goods were MASS PRODUCED. Germany’s economic
growth rate passed even that of Britain and France, with 33% increase in productivity.

The Dawes Plan was reinforced in 1929 by the YOUNG PLAN. Germany’s reparation
payments were reduced by 75% and her deadline extended by a further 58 YEARS. The
Weimar Republic’s position was now much more secure and the future for extremist groups
looked bleak.
The Dawes Plan
33
(B) INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The Treaty of Versailles had labelled Germany as the villain of World War One e.g.
ARTICLE 231. Stresemann, as Foreign minister, set out to revive Germany’s image and
reputation.
1) THE LACARNO PACT OF 1925
The pact or treaty was signed with France, Belgium, Britain and Italy.
Germany promised never to attack France or Belgium again and to accept a peaceful solution to
disputes.
2) ENTRY INTO THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS (1926)
The League of Nations, set up in 1920, stood for peaceful negotiation rather than violent
conflict (war). Stresemann persuaded his former enemies that Germany was now (1926) ready and
fit to join. Even France agreed.
3) THE KELLOGG – BRIAND PACT OF 1928
Germany was one of 60 countries which agreed to RENOUNCE (reject) war as a means of
settling disputes.
Frank B. Kellogg
Aristide Briand
Importance (of the above 3 agreements)

Germany emerged from being an OUTCAST in 1919 to being an accepted member of the
INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY.

Other nations were more willing to accept a reduction in Germany’s REPARATION
payments (e.g. Young Plan, 1929).

The Nazis, with their cries for ‘revenge’, seemed out of touch with the new mood of
OPTIMISM and their support continued to drain away, despite Hitler’s re-modelling of the
Nazi Party during the mid 1920’s.
34
PROBLEMS THAT STILL REMAINED DURING THE
“GOLDEN AGE.”
The “Golden Age” brought its successes,
but some problems remained. Perhaps Stresesmann
only “papered over the cracks” (i.e. on the surface
there were achievements, but underlying difficulties,
failures and threats still existed).
Papering over the cracks
1) ECONOMIC PROBLEMS

Germany still had to pay the £6.6 billion Reparations agreed in 1921 and this was a huge
burden on the German economy.

Unemployment posed a serious threat, despite the growing economy. From 1925 – it never
fell below 1 million, and there was a notable rise to almost 2 million in 1928.

Farmers faced particular hardship. Agricultural prices fell after 1925 and by 1929, farm
workers’ wages were only half the national average.

Most alarming, the German economy relied heavily on American loans, especially after the
Dawes Plan of 1924 injected $800 million into the German economic recovery. Any
downturn in the U.S. economy would spell disaster for Germany (as happened after the Wall
Street Crash of 24th October 1929). Thus Germany was economically vulnerable.
2) THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC APPEARED TO BE UNPATRIOTIC

Nearly all Germans hated the continued payment of reparations to the nation’s former
enemies, particularly France. Even if the Dawes (1924) and Young (1929) plans eased the
burden, Germany was still scheduled to pay reparations until 1988!! Right Wing parties,
such as the Nazis and Nationalists, called for an immediate end to payments.

This feeling that the Weimar Republic was unpatriotic was exacerbated (made worse) when
Stresemann appeared to give in to France and called off passive resistance during the Ruhr
Crisis.

Some army generals demanded that the land lost in 1919 at Versailles, such as AlsaceLorraine (to France) and Posen (to Poland), should be won back by force if necessary.
35
CULTURE DURING THE ‘GOLDEN AGE’ 1924-29
During the ‘Golden Age’, the restrictions on culture were lifted which gave way to a flourish of
activity:
1) American influences
Charlie Chaplin
Josephine Baker
One of the most striking aspects of the ‘Cultural Revolution’ was the introduction of American
popular culture – a symbol of the modern age (‘Modernism’). The humour of Charlie Chaplin was
appreciated whilst many flocked to see Josephine Baker dancing (sometimes nude!) to jazz music.
2) Literature and film – Again, there was a clear break with tradition. Themes included the
monotony of modern life and the futility of war – summarised in the 1929 film by Erich
Maria Remarque: ‘All quiet on the Western Front’ (in book form it sold 500,000 copies). By
the end of the 1930s, Germany was producing more films than all the other countries in
Europe put together.
36
3) Architecture - Again, the trend was to break with tradition. Under WALTER GROPIUS,
the BAUHAUS school of Architecture created startling new buildings.
Walter Gropius
Bauhaus movement new building
Nazi reaction to ‘Modernist’ culture
The new modernist culture was strongly attacked by extreme right-wing groups, such as the Nazis,
who blamed the changes on Jewish influences. Terms used to condemn the new culture included
‘degenerate’, ‘decadent’ and ‘un-German’
One of the ‘decadent’ Berlin night clubs which the Nazis detested so much
37
HITLER’S RISE
TO POWER
(1929 – 1933)
GREAT DEPRESSION
HIITLER’S TALENTS AND PROMISES
PROPAGANDA
POLITICAL RIVALRY 1932-33
THE REICHSTAG FIRE
38
HITLER’S RISE
TO POWER
1929 – 1933
Hitler being appointed Chancellor by Hindenburg at Potsdam, 30 January 1933
Important note
1. This section of the course appears, in one form or another, every year in the Examination.
Be FULLY prepared.
2. If you are asked to deal with 2 or more reasons, a conclusion will usually be necessary.
3. There may be credit if you can show how the factors are inter-linked.
4. Be able to prioritise the reasons (“The most important factor ….”/ “A slightly less
significant factor ….”).
5. The Reichstag Fire can be used as a reason if the question just says “1933” and not
specifically up to the point when Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933.
39
FACTOR 1
THE GREAT DEPRESSION
(1929 – 1933)
A soup kitchen providing food for unemployed
40
Overview – (good way to start your answer)
The Great Depression helped to turn the Nazi Party form an irrelevant group (12 seats in the
Reichstag in 1928) to a powerful political force (230 seats in July 1932). Germany lost
complete faith in democracy and looked for a “saviour” with the authority and strength to
pull them out of the economic crisis.
Causes of the Depression (Be careful with this. Only use it if it fits the question!!)
The Great Depression in Germany was triggered by the Wall Street crash of Oct 24th 1029, when
26 billion dollars was wiped off the value of stocks and shares in the U.S.A. Subsequently, the
U.S.A. began to recall their loans, including the $800 million supplied to Germany in the Dawes
Plan of 1924. This plunged Germany into the Great Depression.
Who suffered worst?
 Farmers – They had not gained from the “Golden Age” (1924-1929) like most other
Germans. From 1925, prices had been falling and the Depression intensified the problems.
Many farmers lost their lands which had sometimes been in their families for generations.
 Businessmen / factory workers – Firms that had borrowed heavily now went bankrupt.
This in turn led to workers being laid off and causing high unemployment (40% of all factory
workers by 1932). Overall, 6 million Germans were unemployed at the peak of the Depression,
causing extreme poverty and suffering, especially when the government cut unemployment
benefit.
 The Young – More than 50% of 16-30 year old Germans became unemployed by 1933.
60% of University graduates were unable to find employment.
Effects of the Depression on the Weimar government and the Nazi Party
The government had less income from taxes but was terrified that printing more bank notes would
bring back the nightmare Hyperinflation of 1921-1923. Therefore, instead of spending their way out
of the Depression, they cut back, which only added to their growing unpopularity. Essentially – the
Depression made the Weimar Government and the system of democracy seem weak and
ineffective. This greatly undermined the public’s confidence.
Hitler, the skilful opportunist, was now able to step into the void, offering strength and hope.
(Good link here into the next section).
41
FACTOR 2
HITLER’S TALENTS
AND
PROMISES
42
Whereas the “Golden Age” had stifled Hitler’s messages and talents, the “Great Depression”
opened up new opportunities:

Hitler the orator
Hitler developed his speech-making skills into
potent weapons, with the ability to mesmerise /
hypnotise audiences. His charismatic personality
set him aside from the leaders of other extreme
groups such as the Communists or Nationalists.

Creation of scapegoats
Hitler cleverly created scapegoats against which the disillusioned Germans could vent their
growing anger. He talked of an “International Jewish Conspiracy,” blaming the Jews for the
Wall Street Crash and Great Depression. This gained support from the Middle Classes who
feared a Communist takeover like in Soviet Russia and attracted financial backing from
businessmen.

Hitler’s promises
N.B. There is a strong link here to Propaganda (Factor 3) – making this section a good
example of “double value” Revision.
Hitler’s promises offered hope to all Germans affected by the misery of the Great
Depression:
Promise 1.
Revive the German Economy
This was an irresistible promise to farmers whose lands had been repossessed, to failing
businessmen facing competition from department stores and the 6 million unemployed of all ages.
Promise 2.
Make Germany “great” again
Hitler revived the myth that the German Army had been “stabbed in the back” in November 1918 –
a powerful message to attract the support of patriotic Germans, especially ex-soldiers. The promise
to abolish the Treaty of Versailles, with its hated reparations, military and territorial restrictions,
resonated with the disgruntled Germans. Hitler talked about re-armament and reviving national
dignity and respect.
Final Thought
So did Hitler create his own destiny, or was he the product of fortunate circumstances?
43
FACTOR 3
PROPAGANDA
‘OUR LAST HOPE’: HITLER,
A Nazi Poster of 1932
44
The propaganda of the Nazis outshone that of their opponents, including the Social Democrats and
Communists. It was heavily influenced by new techniques pioneered in Madison Avenue, the
advertising centre of New York. Hitler had already seen the vast potential in his book “Mein
Kampf” in 1925 and emphasised the need for simple, direct messages:
“Propaganda must confine itself to a very few points and repeat them endlessly.”
The Organisation of Propaganda
In 1933 JOSEPH GOEBBELS set up the “Ministry for People’s Enlightenment and Propaganda.”
This was in turn subdivided into smaller bodies called “Chambers,” such as the Reich Chamber of
Culture which controlled the Press, Radio, Theatre, Music and Film. At a lower level, there was a
concerted attempt to indoctrinate young people in schools.
Different Propaganda Methods
Mass rallies
Torchlight parades
Radio programmes
Newspaper articles
(e.g. in Der Sturmer or the Volkinscher Beobachter)
Films
(e.g. “The Eternal Jew” – 1937)
Posters
Different types of Posters
Some of these had NATIONAL messages which appealed to all Germans, but others were
SECTORAL and targeted specific groups e.g.
The Unemployed – promise of “work and bread.”
Ex soldiers – “Make Germany great again.”
The middle classes – fear of communism.
Women - a neglected group, but comprising half of the electorate.
Propaganda became a powerful tool for the Nazis against the “incompetent” Weimar Republic
during the Great Depression years (1929-1933 – note the link to Factor 1)
45
FACTOR 4
POLITICAL RIVALRY 1932-33
46
In the July 1932 elections, the Nazis won 37% of the vote, giving them 230 seats in the Reichstag –
more than any other political party. Hitler insisted on being appointed Chancellor by President
Hindenburg. However, a second election in November 1932 saw the Nazi percentage of the vote
fall to 33%. It seemed like Hitler’s hopes of power were slipping away.
President Hindenburg
Franz von Papen
General von Schleicher
However, Hitler’s chances were revived due to a better rivalry between Von PAPEN (leader of the
Catholic Centre Party) and Von SCHLEICHER, an ambitious politician and general. Hindenburg
had appointed Von Papen, his personal aristocratic friend, as Chancellor in 1932, but he was unable
to retain support, and Schleicher was made Chancellor instead in December. He too was unable to
command support and resigned on January 28th 1933. Hindenburg and Von Papen now hatched a
plot to give Von Papen some power and Hitler was to be the pawn in their game. Hitler was made
Chancellor with Von Papen as Vice Chancellor. It was believed that Hitler could be controlled and
manipulated and would be unable to survive the challenges of the Great Depression. They had
severely underestimated Hitler!
47
FACTOR 5
THE REICHSTAG FIRE
FEB 27TH 1933
48
Hitler’s position before the Fire
There is a misconception that Hitler had “achieved power” when Hindenburg chose him to be
German Chancellor in January 1933. in fact hiss position was extremely precarious:


Hindenburg, the aristocrat, had contempt for Hitler (the “Bohemian
Corporal”) and could dismiss him at any time.
Hitler’s share of the vote was actually falling. It had reached a peak
of 37.4% in July 1932 but now stood at 33.1%
The Reichstag Fire gave him the opportunity to turn a fragile position into
one of strength.
Events of the Fire (27th February 1933)
When the Reichstag building caught fire on February 27th, a Dutch Communist, Marinus Van Der
Lubbe, was arrested and charged with arson. He would subsequently be put on trial with 4 other
Communists. Hitler and Goering quickly announced that the Nazis had saved Germany from a
Communist putsch or revolt. (Some writers now believe the Nazis set fire to the Reichstag
themselves to frame their political opponents.)
Importance of the Fire to the Nazis
Hitler exploited the fear of Communism felt by the 86 year old
President Hindenburg and persuaded him to introduce an
EMERGENCY DECREE the next day so that Hitler could
deal with the crisis. This gave the Nazis special powers to tap
phones and search property. 4000 Communists and other
opponents of Hitler were arrested.
Hitler claimed the Emergency Decree was only a temporary
measure, but it actually remained in force until the fall of the
Third Reich in 1945. Along with March 1933 Enabling Act,
it swept away Hitler’s previous vulnerability and set him on
a path towards TOTALITARIAN DICTATORSHIP.
President Hindenburg
Final thought
Could you now prioritise the 4 factors in an order of importance? Which 2 would you select if given
an open choice?
49
THE MOVE TO
DICTATORSHIP
HITLER’S
CONSOLIDATION
OF POWER
HITLER’S VULNERABLE POSITION
REICHSTAG FIRE
ENABLING ACT
NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES
DEATH OF HINDENBURG
ARMY OATH
50
GERMANY 1933-1934 – FROM DEMOCRACY TO A TOTALITARIAN
DICTATORSHIP. THE CONSOLIDATION OF POWER
Key terms
DICTATOR A ruler with absolute (complete) power.
TOTALITARIAN REGIME a one party state that controls every aspect of life.
HITLER’S POSITION IN 1933
It would be misleading to think that when Hitler was
made Chancellor in January 1933 his position was
strong and secure. As the cartoon on P45 suggests,
there were a number of serious threats to his authority:-
1) POLITICAL THREATS
President HINDENBURG had chosen Hitler to be Chancellor but he could as soon dismiss him.
Hindenburg the aristocrat (upper class) had contempt for this son of an Austrian customs official.
Moreover (also), Hitler’s popular support seemed to be declining. In the last election (November
1932), he had secured 33.1% of the vote compared with 37.4 in July 1932. This was a long way
short of the 51% needed to pass laws and the 67% required to change the German constitution (the
political system).
2) POTENTIAL MILITARY OPPOSITION
The German army was largely led by the upper classes and they looked down upon Hitler whom
they referred to as the “Bohemian corporal”. It was quite possible that the army might attempt a
putsch (revolt) against Hitler in a much more threatening way than Hitler himself had carried out
ten years earlier in Munich.
The above information reveals Hitler’s vulnerability and why he needed an
event like the Reichstag Fire to consolidate his position.
51
An American cartoon from early 1933 with the caption
‘Not the most comfortable seat’
52
HITLER’S TACTICS (1933)
Within just 18 months, Hitler would alter his position from one of weakness and vulnerability to
one of dictatorial power.
1933
1) THE REICHSTAG FIRE (Feb 27th 1933)
When the Reichstag (parliament) building burnt down in February 1933, Hitler displayed his
OPPORTUNISM once again. Although the evidence was extremely thin, he blamed the crime on
the Communists, the perfect scapegoats! Hindenburg, the aristocrat, was frightened by the
possibility of a Communist takeover, and now allowed Hitler to rule by EMERGENCY DECREE
(i.e. to pass laws without consulting the Reichstag). 4000 Communists were arrested. The Nazis
were given the power to tap phones and to search property. In fact the Emergency Decree would
survive until the defeat of Nazism in 1945, and was a key weapon in imposing Hitler’s authority.
2) THE LAST DEMOCRATIC GERMAN ELECTION (March 1933)
At the elections the Nazis won 44% of the vote, securing 288 seats. They had used the excuse of
the Reichstag Fire to intimidate the opposition. The Emergency Decree was employed to prevent
the Communists from taking up the 81 seats they had won. Now Hitler offered the gullible Catholic
Centre Party a coalition which gave Hitler the 67% he needed to change the constitution.
53
3) THE ENABLING ACT/LAW (MARCH 23rd 1933)
This law, passed in March 1933, was a TURNING POINT, a decisive step towards dictatorship. In
short, it gave Hitler’s government (regime) the power to make its own laws without the approval of
the president or the Reichstag. Instead the Reichstag would become merely a venue for Hitler’s key
speeches. After 14 troubled years, the Weimar Republic and its democracy were finished.
During 1933 Hitler used the Enabling Act to make fundamental political changes, the most
important being the LAW AGAINST THE NEW FORMATION OF PARTIES IN July 1933.
This made the Nazis the only legal party in Germany (a one party state). The rest e.g. the
Communists and the Social Democrats, were banned. Trade Unions were also abolished; since they
posed a threat to the successful implementation of Hitler’s economic policies.
1934
1) THE NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES (JUNE 30th 1934)
54
Satirical cartoon
Condemning the
move towards
violence
THE NIGHT OF THE LONG KNIVES JUNE 30th 1934
(or “Operation Hummingbird”)
What was the Night of the Long Knives?
This was Hitler’s revenge against potential opponents of the Nazi Regime (= ‘government’), past
and present including the head of the S.A. or Brownshirts Ernst Rohm and the former ‘traitors’ Von
Kahr and Gregor Strasser. Estimates of the number of murders vary, but there may have been as
many as 400. The ‘executioners’ were the S.S. (Blackshirts) and Gestapo.
Brownshirt (SA)
Gestapo officer
Himmler leader of the SS
(Blackshirt)
Revision Hints
In the exam you may have to use this topic in two possible ways: As a single paragraph in a
question asking you how Hitler consolidated his power 1933-1934. You might choose your other
paragraph as the Reichstag Fire or Enabling Act.
 A second type of question might just focus on the Night of the Long Knives, so you would
need to divide up your information as below.
55
Why was the Night of the Long Knives carried out/why was it
important to Hitler?
1. Rohm was becoming a menace – a personal threat to Hitler
Rohm had been a strong supporter of Hitler since
the Munich Putsch of November 8th and 9th 1923
and became head of the ‘Nazi Army’, the S.A.
Yet by 1934 his ambitions were growing and many
believed he could displace Hitler. This was especially
true as the S.A. now numbered 4 million whilst the
regular army was still only 100,000. Rohm’s loyalty
was questionable. In February 1934 he referred to
Hitler as “the ridiculous corporal” and to the army
generals as “a lot of old fogies”. He wanted to become
Defence Secretary and use his new powers to merge
the regular army with the S.A. Hitler felt he needed to
act to safeguard his own position and to prevent
damaging divisions opening up inside the Nazi Party.
Hitler and Rohm
2. Winning the support of the regular army and businessmen to enable Hitler to
carry out his future plans for a “1000 Year Reich” or “Empire.”
Hitler realised that Rohm’s views presented not
just an immediate threat, but could also block his
long term ambitions. The policies of the S.A.
were ‘left wing’, edging towards the ideas of the
Communists. Hitler knew how this offended the
right wing army generals and the rich
businessmen who funded the Nazi Party.
Moreover, the S.A were violent and
undisciplined – not the characteristics needed for
a future invasion of mighty Russia. Hitler wanted
to present himself as a respectable and
responsible leader, and the unruliness of the S.A
was preventing this. Thus, Hitler made the
decision to move towards the wishes of the
regular army to keep alive his dreams of a 1000
Year Reich in the East, created by the united and
disciplined German Army. As one historian has
stated: “The ‘bully boys’ (the S.A.) had outlived
their usefulness to Hitler.”
56
The British cartoon below is being SATRICAL (i.e. ridiculing the event). It is using humour to
condemn Hitler’s actions. Therefore, the traditional one handed Nazi salute has become a twohanded gesture, signifying the “surrender” of S.A. authority. The S.A. leaders are shown as dead.
Note Hitler’s personal responsibility, with a smoking revolver in his hand and the “double cross”
arm band, signifying his violent betrayal of former friends.
The cartoon also ridicules the Aryan image, with a Nordic (Aryan) warrior, the security minister
GOERING, threatening with a blood stained spear. Meanwhile, the Propaganda Minister
GOEBBELS, another of Hitler’s accomplices, cowers behind Hitler on all fours.
THIS CARTOON IS A REGULAR EXAM FAVOURITE!
A British cartoon from July 1934, about the Night of the Long Knives in June 1934. The caption
with the cartoon was, ‘They salute with both hands now.’
57
DAVID LOW’S cartoons can be recognised by his signature at the bottom. Below is another
satirical attack on the Nazi regime. It is also set in 1934 but earlier than the last one. Low critically
reflects on the progressive move towards dictatorship since January 1933. This would include
Hitler’s manipulation of the Reichstag Fire incident, the Enabling Act, loss of civil liberties,
banning of Trade Unions, Political Parties etc, evaluate the cartoon very carefully.
A cartoon published in 1934
58
3) THE DEATH OF HINDENBURG (AUGUST 1934)
Hitler became Fuhrer on 19th August 1934
When Hindenburg died In August 1934, Hitler combined the 2 offices of Chancellor and President
and re-titled himself FUHRER (leader). The dictatorship was now complete and Germany was on
the path to becoming a TOTALITARIAN STATE (see P1), with Hitler in control.
To show its gratitude for the Night of the Long Knives, the army swore an oath of obedience to
Hitler. In 1935 the army was re-named the WEHRMACHT and was directly controlled by Hitler.
The Army’s oath of Loyalty
“I swear by God this sacred oath, that I will render unconditional obedience to the Fuhrer of the
German Reich and people, Adolf Hitler, the supreme commander of the Armed Forces, and will be
ready as a brave soldier to risk my life at any time for this oath.”
59
KEEPING
CONTROL OF
THE GERMAN
PEOPLE
(1933 – 1945)
TERROR
PROPAGANDA
THE ECONOMY
STRENGTH THROUGH JOY
60
The ‘carrot and the stick’
61
HOW DID HITLER KEEP CONTROL OF
THE GERMAN PEOPLE AFTER 1933?
Hitler maintained his authority through a combination of persuasion and terror – a ‘carrot and
stick’ approach. It is difficult to judge which of these had the greatest impact.
(A)
THE ‘STICK’ – NAZI TERROR
Force and intimidation deterred the Germans from openly opposing Hitler. This ‘terror’ came in
different forms:-
1) THE S.S. (SCHUTZSTAFFEL OR BLACKSHIRTS)
This was formed in 1925 as an offshoot of the S.A. It’s members rose rapidly and it replaced the
S.A. after the ‘Night of the Long Knives’ in June 1934. The S.S. became Hitler’s instrument of
terror, crushing any opposition with unlimited powers of arrest without trial, searching homes and
confiscating property. Under their leader, HIMMLER, this elite group did much to suppress and
deter opposition to the Nazis.
The S.S. would become responsible for running the Concentration Camps and had its own Security
Service (S.D.) which operated a network of spies and informers.
62
2)
THE GESTAPO (secret state police)
The Gestapo also came under Himmler’s control
after 1936. This non-uniformed group used spies
and informers to detect any traces of opposition
and was the most feared of the Nazi terror
organisations. The S.S. were visible by their
black uniform – but it was impossible to know
who was a member of the Gestapo.
Gestapo badge
3)
THE LEGAL SYSTEM
The legal system came under the strict control of the Nazi regime after 1934 when the so-called
PEOPLE’S COURT was established. Between 1934 and 1939, 534 ‘enemies’ were sentenced to
death while 160,000 more remained under arrest.
4)
CONCENTRATION CAMPS (The KZs)
The first of these camps was built at DACHAU near Munich and several more followed. Political
prisoners were detained and were subjected to brutal beatings. Some opponents were subtly allowed
to leave the camps – to spread the message that opposition and resistance did not pay.
To most Germans, obedience seemed preferable to the risk of becoming another victim of the Nazi
terror.
In 1939 there were 132 thousand people in Nazi Concentration Camps
63
(B)
THE ‘CARROT’ – EXAMPLE 1 – NAZI PROPAGANDA
Between 1929-1933, the Depression years, JOSEPH GOEBBELS had shown the huge potential of
carefully constructed propaganda (posters, radio, rallies, speeches etc) operating from the
Propaganda Ministry in Berlin. Now propaganda was to be used to consolidate (strengthen) support
for the Nazi regime. The process of intensive persuasion is called INDOCTRINATION and had a
huge impact on maintaining the popularity of the Nazi regime.
Examples:-
Radio Radio was a decisive weapon employed by the Nazis. 70% of Germans had a radio and
programmes targeted all groups (A sectoral appeal) from adults to young children. It was an ideal
medium to influence the nation through carefully selected news programmes and Hitler’s speeches.
Marches / parades
Hitler used these to convey an image
of German utility, all marching together
for a common cause. Torchlight parades
and mass rallies were particularly atmospheric.
Albert Speer was a key figure in the organisation
of the rallies.
Films
64
The Nazis exploited the popularity of the cinema, producing 200 propaganda films. A range of
techniques were used, from comedy to shocking the public. A key example was the vehemently
anti-Semitic “THE ETERNAL JEW” in 1937.
Newspapers
Strict censorship meant that any anti-Nazi messages were suppressed. The Nazis printed their own
newspapers e.g. the VOLKISCHER BEOBACHTER and DER STURMER.
Posters
A combination of national and sectoral appeals promoted to the Nazi messages. Key themes
included:



The importance of family
Patriotism / Nationalism
Promoting the image of Hitler
Anti-Semitism
One of the most anti-Semitic posters is shown below:-
Note: The distorted features
65

The Communist symbol on the
map of Germany. Another
indication of the supposed
Communist / Jewish “world
plot”.

The Whip.

Money – gained at the expense
of the German people.

The title “The ETERNAL
Jew”.
(B)
THE ‘CARROT’ – METHOD 2 – REVIVING THE GERMAN
ECONOMY
The “GREAT DEPRESSION” (1929-1933) had accelerated the end of the Weimar Republic. In
order to appease the German people and top gain credibility, it was vital that Hitler could revive the
German economy and improve living standards.
Hitler achieved this in 2 main ways:-
1) Reduce unemployment
Hitler certainly kept his promise of helping people find jobs. In 1933 (when Hitler came to power),
unemployment stood at 6,000,000 (6 million). By 1939 it stood at only 300,000 (3 hundred
thousand). This was largely achieved by initiating job-creation schemes e.g. building houses and
motorways (AUTOBAHNS). Others became part of the German army when CONSCRIPTION
was introduced in 1935.
Unemployment 1921-1939
(note the rapid decrease)
2) Improving the lives of the workers (despite harsher conditions)
However, in some respects, working conditions became harsher, with trade unions banned (May
1933), the freezing of pay and longer working hours. Hitler won over the potentially hostile
working classes by offering incentives e.g. the BEAUTY OF FAITH organisation provided factory
workers with washrooms, clean conditions and canteens.
66
Strength through joy
(kraft Durch Freude – KDF)
Hitler also created a ‘Feel Good Factor’ by offering the Germans special privileges through
the ‘Strength through Joy’ movement
Hitler and the Nazis wanted to control every part of people’s lives, even their spare or leisure time.
They worked out that the average German spent between seven and eight hours a day sleeping and
about six hours a day working. With typical Nazi efficiency, they calculated that ordinary Germans
had about 10¼ hours a day free for leisure. This totalled 3740 hours a year. Hitler gave a doctor
called Robert Ley the task of filling this spare time and making sure it wasn’t wasted.
Conclusion
The combination of solving unemployment, Beauty of Faith and Strength through Joy drew
attention away from the more violent aspects of the new regime, and gave the disillusioned German
population genuine hope.
67
YOUTH
POLICY
LONG TERM AIMS
YOUTH ORGANISATIONS
INDOCTRINATION IN SCHOOLS
PROPAGANDA
REBEL GANGS DURING WORLD WAR II
68
NAZI POLICIES TOWARDS THE YOUTH
“The young belong to me.” (Adolf Hitler)
The aims of Nazi youth policies
Young people, both boys and girls, were vitally important to Hitler. Ensure that you could give a
full explanation of each of the following reasons:1. Hitler was aiming for a ‘1000 YEAR REICH’ (empire). The youth of Germany would be
the foundation for this. Therefore, they must grow up to be supremely loyal to carry Nazi
ideology into the future. Hitler expected to fight the mighty SOVIET UNION (RUSSIA) in
a future war. On a territorial and military level and, given the huge population advantage
held by the Soviet Union, this seemed a daunting task. Therefore, young boys must learn to
be fearless, strong, obedient and loyal while healthy girls would be the providers of future
army recruits.
2. Children must learn to be ANTI-SEMITIC to break the supposed hold of the Jews within
Germany. (Remember Hitler’s notion of a “Jewish world conspiracy.”) The youth should be
submerged into the belief in an ARYAN or MASTER RACE which was not tainted by
lesser races or cultures. (Untermenschen). This indoctrination of young minds could be
achieved via education and Nazi youth organisations, such as the Hitler Youth and League
of German Maidens.
69
HOW DID HITLER ATTEMPT TO INDOCTRINATE/ INFLUENCE
YOUNG PEOPLE?
METHOD (1) YOUTH ORGANISATIONS
Nazi youth organisations were separated by gender since they had very different roles in the future
Reich (empire).
(A) BOYS – HITLER YOUTH (HITLER JUGEND OR H.J.)
The main organisation was the Hitler Youth for 14-18 year olds. These boys were given military
style training, had to march long distances with heavy packs, learnt self defence, how to drive cars
and fly gliders and were taught to shoot small bore rifles and pistols. In short, boys were being
prepared to be the warriors of the “1000 year Reich”. Every H.J. member was issued with a dagger.
Encouraging ‘team’ work – tug of war
Hitler Youth camp
Unity was encouraged by the issue of a distinct uniform and regular
drilling. Every summer thousands of H.J. members flocked to
Nuremburg to hear the Fuhrer speak about the importance of youth
in shaping Germany’s future greatness.
70
(B) GIRLS – LEAGUE OF GERMAN MAIDENS
From 10-13 years, girls could enrol in the “League of German Girls” moving up to the LEAGUE
OF GERMAN MAIDENS (B.D.M.) from 14-18 (hopefully followed by marriage!). The emphasis
was on the ideals of womanhood, focusing on health and fitness, no smoking or make up and
lessons in CHILDCARE. By 1935 the B.D.M. had 1.5 million members. Physical fitness was
essential if girls were to develop into strong mothers, with healthy children, as the photograph
below illustrates:-
Javelin throwers in the League of German
Maidens. Girls also had to run 60 metres in
14 seconds, throw a ball 12 metres, complete
somersaults, a tightrope walk and a two hour
march or swim 100 metres; and know how to
make a bed.
71
METHOD (2) EDUCATION
School children giving the Nazi salute
Education was seen as a further instrument of indoctrination. The process gradually intensified,
backed by the fact that teachers had to join the NAZI TEACHER’S ASSOCIATION.
Students at schools continued to be taught the same subjects, but each one was twisted slightly to
give it a Nazi emphasis. Below are listed some of the subtle changes which occurred in the
classroom.
SUBJECT
PROPAGANDA
Physical Education
Military training, fitness for motherhood, team work,
discouraging weakness.
Biology
To teach the young about breeding and heredity, the importance
of racial purity and the superiority of the Aryan race.
History
Mathematics
Showing youngsters the greatness of Germany through a study
of her battles, the bravery and heroism of German soldiers, and
the greatness of Hitler in his struggle to become Germany’s
Führer.
Using ‘simple’ arithmetic questions to brainwash children into
accepting the purifying nature of warfare, the inferiority of
minority groups, and many other Nazi ideas.
Physics
Teaching students about the effects of poison gases, missile
trajectories.
Race studies
(a new subject)
The superiority of Nordic/Aryan man and the dangers of mixing
with lower races and Jews.
Religious Studies became optional, and the Nazis discouraged head teachers from placing too much
emphasis on Christian ideas in their schools.
72
The concept of the German ‘master race’ was emphasised regularly in lessons and text books. Note
the exaggerated distinction drawn between the Aryan German and Jew below:-
From a Nazi children’s book
Some subjects were taken by both boys and girls e.g. German, but there was a more clearly
domestic menu for girls. Note, however, the continued importance of sport and fitness – vital for
child-rearing!
Typical weekly study timetable for a Berlin schoolgirl aged 13
Period
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
8.00-8.45
German
German
German
German
German
German
8.50-9.35
Geography
History
Singing
Geography
9.40-10.25
Race Study Race Study
Race Study
Race Study
History
Party
Beliefs
Singing
Party
Beliefs
10.25-11.00
Break
Domestic
Science
with maths
Break
Domestic
Science with
maths
Break
Domestic
Science
with maths
Health
Biology
Break
Domestic
Science
with maths
Break
Domestic
Science
with maths
Health
Biology
11.00-12.05
12.10-12.55
Eugenics
Break
Domestic
Science
with maths
Health
Biology
Eugenics
Eugenics
During break there would be sports and special announcements.
There was organised sport every afternoon from 2.00 pm – 6.00 pm
73
METHOD (3) PROPAGANDA
Radio programmes were targeted at the young as well as old, to ensure that Nazi ideals were
promoted. Similarly, posters were employed to influence the youth. The poster below celebrates the
burning of anti-Nazi books by the youth of Germany in 1936, another calculated propaganda stunt.
Members of the Hitler Youth burn books which the
Nazis do not like. Onto the fire goes any book written
by a Jew or a Communist, all the books which disagree
with Nazi ideas, and any book the Nazis think is ‘soft’
or rude.
HOW SUCCESSFUL WERE THE NAZI POLICIES?
74
1) Successes
Nazi policies were to a major extent successful. Many found
the youth movements to be an exciting and liberating experience.
By 1939 82% of young boys had joined the Hitler Youth. As
the military campaigns of World War II showed the great bulk
of young German soldiers were indeed fearlessly effective.
During World War II the loyal youth took on more and more
responsibilities such as air-raid duties, operating search lights
anti-aircraft batteries. Membership of the youth groups
remained high, despite the military reverses after the defeat
at Stalingrad in 1942.
Hitler Youth operating searchlight
2) Failures
However, not all the youth responded to Nazi indoctrination.
This was particularly the case during WORLD WAR II (1939-45) when it became easier to oppose
the regime (government). Rebel gangs began to appear. e.g.
The Raving Dudes
Navajos
Edelweiss Pirates
Kittle Bach Pirates
Swing Kids
Some of these were openly disloyal: Sheltering Allied pilots that were shot down and helping them back to Britain
 Putting leaflets, dropped by Allied planes, into letter boxes
 Listening to illegal BBC radio broadcasts and jazz music
 Adopting ‘undesirable’ fashions, such as long hair, lipstick – and even smoking!
 Public graffiti e.g. ‘Down with Hitler’
The penalties for such ‘disloyalty’ were severe.
Hitler Youth
on parade
75
WOMEN
IN NAZI
GERMANY
(1933-1945)
ROLES
LONG TERM AIMS
BENEFITS
LOSSES
CHANGE IN POLICY IN W.W. II
76
WOMEN IN NAZI GERMANY (1933-1945)
“The ideal woman is one who, above all, is capable of being a mother.”
(The Nazi Rudolf Hess)
Male and Female roles
Rules were clearly defined:
Men were destined to work and fight. They were the warriors of the “Third Reich” or “1000
rear Reich”.

Women were needed to support their men and to raise radically pure (Aryan) children. The
Nazi slogan of “KINDER” (children), “KIRCHE” (church), and “KUCHE” (kitchen)
summed up Nazi policy towards women.
The diagram overleaf illustrates this clearly.
77
A NAZI PROPAGANDA POSTER SHOWING HOW THE NAZIS SAW THE ROLE
OF WOMEN.
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Opposition parties, particularly during the hectic electioneering of the Depression years (19291933), were quick to exploit what they called the “oppressive” Nazi policy towards women.
A Social Democrat poster published in 1931. Writing on the poster said, “Women, this is what it
will be like in the ‘Third Reich’! Your reply should be: Fight the Nazis for Social Democracy!”
The Nazis countered these criticisms with the claim that women were in fact:“Different but equal”
and were certainly valued. As Hitler stated in 1934:
“Woman has her battlefield too; with each child that she brings into the world for the nation, she is
fighting her fight on behalf of the nation.”
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WHY DID THE NAZIS TARGET WOMEN?
1) Social Darwinism (This is also a reason for Nazi racial policy
see the later section)
According to Hitler, the ‘Aryan’ or ‘Nordic’ race was the ‘Master’ race – and would triumph
over such ‘inferior races’ as the Jews and Slavs. Racial purity was essential to this and women
had a vital role to play. They were to rear a new generation of Aryan children.
Mixed marriages were forbidden by the Nuremburg Laws of 1935 – a further step towards the
creation of a perfect race. Young women would be encouraged to promote this policy by
attending the ‘baby farms’ or LEBENSBORN - where they would ‘mate’ with a member of the
SS.
2) Producing a strong new generation to help create the 1000 Year Reich
Racial policy was closely linked in with Hitler’s military ambition, the creation of a 1000 Year
Reich (Empire) by conquering Poland and the Soviet Union. Only healthy children born to
healthy mothers would be capable of fulfilling such a formidable task. Therefore, women would
become a priority in the new Germany with their own organisation (e.g. ‘Faith and Beauty’) and
incentives to adopt a domestic role, such as marriage loans and child benefits. Ultimately, from
this, the birth rate would rise and the chances of a successful war in the East would increase.
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Nazi policies in action

After 1933 women were encouraged to give up their jobs and have large families. Target
groups included women doctors, civil servants and teachers. If women assumed a domestic
role, they were given LOANS of up to 1000 marks.

The “MOTHER’S CROSS” was introduced in 1938 to encourage large families.
‘The Honour cross of
the German Mother’. This was
awarded to women as follows:



Gold for eight children
Silver for six children
Bronze for four children
Holders of
the award
were given
an honoured
place at
Nazi
meetings

Contraception and abortion were made illegal.
WHY DID THE NAZIS HAVE THESE POLICIES?
1) Hitler was afraid that the GERMAN POPULATION was growing too slowly and was
falling behind countries like POLAND and RUSSIA. If the Third Reich (1000 year Reich)
was to be created, huge armed forces would be needed. This emphasis on a HIGH BIRTH
RATE was a more extreme form of the general alarm across Europe at slow population
growth. France was already rewarding mothers who had more children.
2) The Nazis did not want any more marriages between Germans and “inferior” people
(UNTERMENSCHEN) like the Jews. More birth among “pure” Aryan Germans would
help to create the “Master Race”. Special baby farms or LEBENSBORN would enable the
mating of Aryan women and blonde S.S. men.
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DID WOMEN GAIN FROM NAZI POLICIES?
(Make sure you could manipulate the following material to be able to answer a question on “How
successful were Nazi policies towards women.”)
(A) GAINS
(On the other hand…….)

Membership of the Nazi “FAITH AND BEAUTY” organisation was high. Many were
enticed by the feeling of liberation and togetherness.

By 1936 there were 30% more births than there had been in 1933.

Financial inducements, such as MARRIAGE LOANS and CHILD BENEFIT were
warmly received. If a woman had eight or more children, state benefits would actually
amount to more than her husband’s monthly wage.

Observers at Nazi rallies testified to the large number of women screaming in support and
hoping to touch Hitler. He received countless offers from women who wanted to have his
children.
Hitler idolised by crowd
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(B) LOSSES
(In other respects…..)

Some women resented the loss of PROFESSIONAL EMPLOYMENT (e.g. doctors,
lawyers, teachers) and joined secret opposition groups like the Social Democrats and
Communists.

Certain female groups were negatively targeted. STERILISATION was introduced for
women who suffered from epilepsy, blindness, deafness or were physically handicapped or
alcoholics.

When WORLD WAR TWO broke out in 1939, the Nazis had to quickly change their
policy towards women. Women were now needed to fill men’s jobs. However, factory work
for women meant low wages and long hours. Most women stayed at home (as the Nazis had
told them to do before). This greatly weakened the German war effort.

The later stages of the war put immense pressures on mothers. 6 million dead German
soldiers and intensive bombing of German cities took many mothers close to breaking
point.
Bomb victims in
Mannheim, 1944. By
the end of the War
many people lived in
ruined buildings
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POLICY
TOWARDS
THE JEWS
(Anti-Semitism)
REASONS FOR PERSECUTION
OTHER TARGETED GROUPS
ANTI-SEMITIC ACTIONS
(1933-1945)
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THE PERSECUTION OF MINORITY GROUPS
N.B. this summary mainly concentrates on Hitler’s persecution of the Jews – the policy of ANTISEMITISM.
WHY DID THE NAZIS PERSECUTE THE JEWS AND OTHER MINORITIES?
(This is the most commonly asked question in the Examination)
REASON 1 – SOCIAL DARWINISM
Hitler believed in Social Darwinism or the “survival of the fittest”:
“All of nature is one big struggle between strength and
weakness”. (Hitler, 1923)
In Hitler’s eyes, the ARYAN or NORDIC race was the strongest
and was destined to be the MASTER RACE (HERRENVOLK).
The Aryans were superior because of their intelligence, capacity
to work hard and willingness to sacrifice themselves for their
country. His ultimate aim was to create a national community
or VOLK of pure Aryans.
The weak were the Jews and other ‘inferior’ races (UNTERMENSCHEN) such as the Slavs.
Social Darwinist theory stated that these were not ‘fit’ enough to survive and would need to be
removed from the Volk, through persecution and a programme of selective breeding e.g. by using
the LEBENSBORN or “baby farms” and the teaching of Eugenics in schools.
REASON 2 – THE “INTERNATIONAL JEWISH CONSPIRACY”.
The Nazis developed the concept of a world wide Jewish plot or conspiracy to corrupt and bring
down the governments of the leading nations and then establish Jewish control. This was portrayed
as an age-old, on-going struggle to bring down governments from within – as vividly shown in the
1937 film – the “External Jew”. Supposedly, the conspiracy was well under way in Germany, with
Hitler labelling the Weimar Republic the “Jew Republic”.
He could point to a list of destructive actions:
 “Stabbing the German army in the back” by
Surrendering in November 1918
 Signing the detested Treaty of Versailles
On June 28th 1919
 Bringing Germany under the control of Jewish
money lenders during the “Golden Age” e.g.
The Dawes Plan
 Causing the Wall Street Crash and Depression.
Hitler promised to destroy the Jewish conspiracy and “rescue” Germany.
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OTHER GROUPS TARGETED
(You will only rarely be asked to deal with these)
The following groups were thought to threaten the purity of the Aryan race and to undermine the
creation of a national Volk:
(1) GYPSIES targeted because of their mixed-race and “idle” lifestyles.
(2) THE INSANE viewed also as a threat to Aryan purity. A programme of sterilisation was
introduced, followed by euthanasia.
(3) TRAMPS AND BEGGARS contributed nothing to the Community either through work or
the creation of wealth.
(4) HOMOSEXUALS this group conflicted with the perfect Aryan image and they were forced
to wear a distinctive pink badge.
(5) ALCOHOLICS were considered to be a drain on the Community and had their heads
shaved or were sent to concentration camps
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ANTI-SEMITIC MEASURES 1933-1945
The main point to understand is that anti-Semitic policy
and actions did not remain the same – but instead developed and intensified
between 1933 and 1945.
Below are some key examples:
Stage 1 – The denial of civil Rights 1933-1938
April 1st 1933 In April there was an official one day
Boycott of Jewish shops, lawyers and doctors all over
Germany.
Anti-Semitic sign reading,
“Jews are unwanted here”
Germany circa 1935-1945
1935 Jews were forbidden to join the army.
September – the Nuremberg Laws. Marriage between Jews and
Aryans banned.
-
Reich Citizenship Law – Jews lost their German citizenship.
Stage 2 – the acceleration of persecution 1938-1941
1938 November 9th-10th KRISTALLNACHT (night of the Broken Glass)
A German diplomat, Ernst Von Rath, was murdered
in Paris by a Jew.
Goebbels (hoping to impress Hitler) organised an
attack on Jews and their property.
About 400 synagogues and 7500 Jewish businesses
were destroyed. 91 Jews were killed and 30,000 sent
to concentration camps.
Stage 3 – World War II 1939-1945
World War II allowed the Nazis to pursue more extreme anti-Semitic policies.
1939 – Jews were moved into GHETTOS in city centres, cut off from the rest of the population.
Only 300 calories of food were allowed per day.
1941 – 45 - THE HOLOCAUST – the German invasion of the U.S.S.R brought many more Jews
under Nazi control. At some point during 1941-42 (perhaps at the January 1942 WANNSEE
CONFERENCE) the decision was taken to kill all the Jews in extermination camps such as
AUSCHWITZ. Altogether about 6 million Jews were murdered (shot or gassed).
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OPPOSITION TO
THE NAZIS
WHY WAS THERE SO LITTLE OPPOSITION?
LEFT WING GROUPS
YOUTH GROUPS
THE CHURCHES
THE ARMY
SUPPORTERS AND OPPONENTS
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OPPOSITION TO THE NAZIS
Key question 1
WHY WAS THERE SO LITTLE OPEN OPPOSITION TO THE NAZIS?
(N.B. ‘open’ = PUBLIC, as opposed to secret, opposition).
1) FEAR – Nazi terror (see previous notes on this).
The S.S and GESTAPO created an intimidating atmosphere which deterred opposition.
Punishments, given out by the PEOPLE’S COURT, were extremely severe. The key political
opposition parties had been banned in July 1933 via the Enabling Act.
2) PROPAGANDA (see previous section on this).
The Propaganda Minister, JOSEPH GOEBBELS, successfully deflected criticism from the Nazis
using creative and persuasive propaganda techniques. In addition, any anti-Nazi propaganda was
viciously CENSORED.
A 1930s poster entitled ‘Long Live Germany’
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3) SUCCESSFUL ECONOMIC POLICIES (see previous notes)
Nazi economic policies helped many Germans and limited their reasons for grumbling.
Unemployment was radically reduced from a peak of 6 million in 1932. Nazi economic
achievements, such as the AUTOBAHNS (motorways) were impressive. The STRENGTH
THROUGH JOY MOVEMENT provided attractive incentives for workers.
A poster advertising the German autobahns
If you went against Hitler’s word you would risk immediate arrest and imprisonment
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Key question 2
HOW SUCCESSFULLY DID THE NAZIS DEAL WITH OPPOSITION GROUPS?
1) LEFT WING GROUPS (the Social Democrats and Communists).
Left wing opposition was severely weakened when the Social Democrat and Communist parties
were banned in July 1933. Instead of uniting in opposition, they remained deeply DIVIDED which
made them even more ineffective.
The Social Democrats were reduced to organising small groups and starting whispering campaigns,
while the Communists wrongly assumed that Hitler would quickly fall. Therefore the dozens of
small-scale resistance groups, such as the RED ORCHESTRA, had only a negligible
(insignificant) impact.
2) YOUTH GROUPS (see earlier section on this)
Some young Germans were opposed to the regimented style of the Nazi youth organisations, such
as Hitler Youth and League of German Maidens. Examples of alternative opposition groups are the
EDELWEISS PIRATES (see below) KITTELBACH PIRATES and the NAVAJOS. Their
activities spread during the war years (1939-1945).
In Munich the WHITE ROSE movement of university students worked against Nazis by
distributing leaflets.
An Edelweiss Pirate group who call themselves
‘The Navajos’
The White Rose Group (left to right:
Hans Scholl, Sophie Scholl,
Christopher Probst)
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These groups clearly had some success and
managed to survive. Many took delight in
intimidating Hitler Youth members.
The Nazis dealt ferociously with gang members who appeared to help the Allied war effort e.g. by
distributing anti-Nazi leaflets.
3) THE CHURCHES
The Nazis saw the Christian Church (Protestant and Catholic) as a threat to their control over
Germany’s way of life. Hitler took some of the sting out of the opposition by signing an agreement
(the CONCORDAT) with the Catholic Church in 1933.
However, the Nazi policy of EUTHANASIA (‘mercy killing’ of the insane) soon brought him into
conflict with the churches. The Catholic CARDINAL GALEN (below) condemned Nazi policies.
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Pastor Niemoller
The protestant MARTIN NIEMOLLER upset Hitler by establishing the CONFESSIONAL
CHURCH, for which he was placed in a concentration camp.
However, Hitler was only partly successful in SUPPRESSING (limiting) church control. Nearly 43
million Protestants and 2 million Catholics retained their allegiance (loyalty) to their respective
churches in 1939.
4) THE ARMY
The loyalty of the army (the WEHRMACHT) was theoretically assured once it took an oath of
obedience to Hitler in 1934, recognising him as Fuhrer. Hitler brought more and more Nazi ideas
into the army (e.g. racial policies) and set up the WAFFEN S.S. The great victories in the West
(e.g. the defeat of France) during 1940 and initial successes in the East against Russia (1941-1942)
cemented Hitler’s popularity.
However, a succession of defeats from 1942 (e.g. Stalingrad), brought the first real doubts about his
leadership qualities. Some generals plotted to remove Hitler e.g. ROMMEL. Hitler narrowly
escaped a bomb plot organised by COUNT VON STAUFFENBERG in 1944 (the ‘July Plot’).
The conspirators were hanged with piano wire.
Picture of Tom Cruise playing
him in the film‘Valkyrie’
Erwin Rommel
Count Von Stauffenberg
IMPORTANT REVISION HINT
You are given extra marks if you are able to PRIORITISE your answers in the examination
i.e. to arrange them in rank order and justify them. So with which of the 4 sources of
opposition explained on P3 to 5 did Hitler deal most successfully and WHY?
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Key examination questions:-
WHICH GROUPS SUPPORTED HITLER AND WHICH OPPOSED HIM?
(Sometimes this question is worded “Who gained from Hitler’s policies and who lost out?”
Weak candidates tend to talk about the ‘German people’ in general rather than to precisely
differentiate between groups. The following table should help you to produce a more exact answer.
NAZI SUPPORTERS
NAZI OPPONENTS
BUSINESSMEN - as the Nazis
suppressed the Communists and
revived the economy (e.g. the 4
Year Plan of 1936).
MINORITY GROUPS - Jews, gypsies
beggars, black people, and
homosexuals. These groups were
persecuted as they did not fit into the
idea of a ‘master race’ or Aryan race.
UNEMPLOYED – the Nazis
found jobs for the 6 million
unemployed.
LEFT WING GROUPS – e.g.
the Social Democrats and Communists
who were banned in July 1933.
PATRIOTIC GERMANS – e.g.
ex-soldiers disillusioned by Germany’s
defeat in W.W.1. Hitler’s rejection
of the Treaty of Versailles (1935)
and victories in W.W.2 (1939-1941)
gained support
THE CHURCHES – led by Cardinal
Galen and Martin Niemoller.
WOMEN – e.g. those who wanted a
career e.g. doctors and lawyers.
FARMERS – Hitler encouraged the
farmers and saw them as true Aryans.
- most farmers stayed loyal to the end
YOUNG PEOPLE - who rejected
the constraints of the Nazi youth
groups (give examples).
WOMEN – many women liked the
emphasis on the family and
supported the drive towards
increasing family sizes.
ARMY LEADERS – e.g. Rommel and
Von Stauffenberg after Germany’s
military defeats ((1942 onwards).
YOUNG PEOPLE - many boys and
girls willingly joined the Nazi youth
organisations e.g. the Hitler Youth and
the League of German Maidens.
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