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Chapter 50
An Introduction to Ecology
and the Biosphere (生態學及生
物圈之介紹)
PowerPoint Lectures for
Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Scale or size of Universe(宇宙萬物之時空尺度)
Space and time(空間與時間) Spatial and temporal scale(時空宇宙)
大大小小之宇宙
總體與個體(macro- and micro-individual)
宏觀與微觀(macro- and micro-scale)
大區間與小區間(large and small compartment)
大系統與小系統(large and small system)
大尺度與小尺度(large and small scale)
-大尺度
億年
光年
-小尺度
微秒(ms)
奈米(nm)
-分子、原子、基本粒子
大歷史與小歷史
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長度(length)
1 m =103 mm
=106μm
=109 nm
=1012 pm
=1015 fm
時間(time)
1 s =103 ms
=106μs
=109 ns
=1012 ps
=1015 fs
重量(weight)
1 g =103mg
=106μg
=109 ng
=1012 pg
=1015 fg
體積(volume)
1 l =103ml
=106μl
=109 nl
=1012 pl
=1015 fl
Scale or size of Universe(萬物之尺度)
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Scale or size of Universe(萬物之尺度)
Universe
Ecosystem
Globe
Biosphere
Ocean
Community
Continent
Population
Island
Individual
Lake
Organ
Vegetation
Tissue
Canopy
Cell
Plant/animal
Organelle
Leaf
Molecule
Chloroplast
Atom
Thylakoid
Pigment-protein complex
Chlorophyll-related compounds
Biochemical components
Molecular level
Protein/DNA/RNA
Atomic level
Nucleus (原子核)
Electron (電子)
J particle (J粒子)
Photon (光子)
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Key Concepts(基本觀念)
50.1: Ecology is the study of interactions between
organisms and the environment.(生態學是研究生物與
環境間之互動)
50.2: Interactions between organisms and the
environment limit the distribution of species.(生物與環
境間之互動限制物種之分佈)
50.3: Abiotic and biotic factors influence the structure
and dynamics of aquatic biomes.(非生物與生物因子影
響水生生物之結構與動態)
50.4: Climate largely determines the distribution and
structure of terrestrial biomes.(氣候決定陸生生物之結
構與分佈)
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Overview: The Scope of Ecology (生態學的範疇)
• Overview: The Scope of Ecology
• Ecology(生態學)
– Is the scientific study of the interactions(互
動) between organisms and the
environment
• These interactions (互動)
– Determine both the distribution(分佈) of
organisms and their abundance(豐度)
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• Ecology
– Is an enormously complex and exciting
area of biology.
– Reveals the richness of the biosphere.
Figure 50.1. The richness
of the biosphere evident
in one area of a
Panamanian forest.
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• Concept 50.1: Ecology is the study of
interactions between organisms and the
environment
• Ecology
– Has a long history as a descriptive
science(描述性科學)
– Is also a rigorous experimental science(實
驗性科學)
– Is an integrative biology(整合性生物學).
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Ecology and Evolutionary Biology
• Events that occur in ecological time
– Affect life on the scale of evolutionary time.
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Organisms and the Environment (生物與環境)
• The environment of any organism includes
– Abiotic(非生物性), or nonliving components:
temperature, sunlight, water and nutrient.
– Biotic (生物性), or living components: other
organisms.
– All the organisms living in the environment, the
biota (生物相)
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Environmental components(環境成份、組成)
Affect the distribution and abundance of
organisms (影響生物的分佈與豐度).
Kangaroos/km2
> 20
10–20
5–10
1–5
0.1–1
< 0.1
Figure 50.2.
Distribution and
abundance of the
red kangaroo in
Australia, based on
aerial survey.
Climate in northern Australia
is hot and wet, with seasonal
drought.
Red kangaroos
occur in most
semiarid and arid
regions of the
interior, where
precipitation is
relatively low and
variable from
year to year.
Limits of
distribution
Southern Australia has
cool, moist winters and
warm, dry summers.
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Southeastern Australia
has a wet, cool climate.
Tasmania
Ecologists(生態學家)
Scientist or biologist using observations (觀察
) and experiments (實驗) to test explanations(
解釋) for the distribution(分佈) and
abundance(豐度) of species.
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Subfields of Ecology(生態學之次領域)
• Organismal ecology (個體生態學)---Studies
how an organism’s structure, physiology, and
(for animals) behavior meet the challenges
posed by the environment.
Figure 50.3a. Organismal ecology. How do
humpback whales select their calving areas?
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Population ecology(族群生態學)
Concentrates mainly on factors (因子) that affect
how many individuals of a particular species live
in an area.
Figure 50.3b.
Population ecology.
What environmental
factors affect the
reproductive rate of
deer mice?
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Community ecology(群聚生態學)
Deals with the whole array of interacting species in a
community.
Figure 50.3c
Community ecology.
What factors influence
the diversity of species
(種的歧異度) that make
up a
particular forest?
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Ecosystem ecology(生態系生態學)
Emphasizes energy flow (能量流) and chemical
cycling (化學循環) among the various biotic and
abiotic components (非生物與生物組成).
Figure 50.3d
Ecosystem ecology.
What factors control
photosynthetic productivity
in a temperate grassland
ecosystem (草原生態系)?
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Landscape ecology(景觀生態學)
Deals with arrays of ecosystems and how they
are arranged in a geographic region(地理位置).
Figure 50.3e. Landscape ecology. To what extent
do the trees lining the drainage channels in this
landscape serve as corridors of dispersal for forest
animals?
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The biosphere(生物圈)
-Is the global ecosystem, the sum of all the planet’s
ecosystems.
-The Earth is the Biosphere 1.(地球是生物圈一號)
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生物圈二號(Biosphere 2)
定名為生物圈2號，是因為這是模仿第一個生物圈－地球的生態交流所
建的第二個生物圈 。亦即地球是生物圈1號。
生物圈2號建於亞利桑納州的奧拉克爾，金主是德州富豪巴斯，佔地三
點一英畝，約五層樓高，是以玻璃和鋼筋與外界隔絕的密閉溫室。 裡面經
人工規劃成熱帶雨林、熱帶大草原、沼澤、沙漠以及海洋等五種自然環境，
擁有千餘種昆蟲、鳥類、動物及魚類，以提供8名研究人員不假外界援助而
得獨立生活的自足生活系統，不幸結果卻演變成充滿二氧化碳和氮氣的惡地，
藤蔓叢生，蟑螂、螞蟻和螽斯橫行。
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生物圈2號内各個组成部分及結構参數
區域
面積(m2) 體積(m3) 土壤(m3) 水分(m3) 大氣(m3)
集約農業區
2000
38000
2720
60
35220
居住区區
1000
11000
2
1
10997
熱帶雨林
2000
35000
6000
100
28900
熱帶草原/海洋/沼澤
2500
49000
4000
3400
41600
沙漠
1400
22000
4000
400
17600
西肺
1800
15000
0
0
15000
南肺
1800
15750
0
750
15000
註:上述两“肺”的體積僅為止其完全膨漲的50%
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Ecology and Environmental Issues
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Ecology and Environmental Issues
• Ecology
– Provides the scientific understanding
underlying environmental issues
• Rachel Carson
– Is credited
with starting
the modern
environmental
movement.
Figure 50.4
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• Most ecologists follow the precautionary
principle regarding environmental issues.
• The precautionary principle(預警原理)
– Basically states that humans need to be
concerned with how their actions affect the
environment.
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敬請指教
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• Concept 50.2: Interactions between organisms
and the environment limit the distribution of
species
• Ecologists
– Have long recognized global and regional
patterns of distribution of organisms within the
biosphere
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• Many naturalists
– Began to identify broad patterns of distribution
by naming biogeographic realms
Palearctic
Nearctic
Tropic
of Cancer
(23.5N)
Oriental
Ethiopian
Equator
Neotropical
Figure 50.5
(23.5S)
Tropic of
Capricorn
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Australian
• Biogeography
– Provides a good starting point for
understanding what limits the geographic
distribution of species
Species absent
because
Yes
Dispersal
limits
distribution?
No
Area inaccessible
or insufficient time
Behavior
limits
distribution?
Yes
Habitat selection
Yes
No
Biotic factors
(other species)
limit
distribution?
No
Predation, parasitism, Chemical
competition, disease factors
Water
Abiotic factors
limit
distribution?
Oxygen
Salinity
pH
Soil nutrients, etc.
Temperature
Physical Light
factors Soil structure
Fire
Moisture, etc.
Figure 50.6
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Dispersal and Distribution
• Dispersal
– Is the movement of individuals away from
centers of high population density or from their
area of origin
– Contributes to the global distribution of
organisms
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Natural Range Expansions
Show the influence of dispersal on distribution.
Figure 50.7. Spread of
breeding populations
of the great-tailed
grackle in the USA
from 1974 to 1996.
The grackle expanded
its breeding range
substantially in just
22 years.
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New areas
occupied
Year
1996
1989
1974
Species Transplants
• Species transplants
– Include organisms that are intentionally or
accidentally relocated from their original
distribution
– Can often disrupt the communities or
ecosystems to which they have been
introduced
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Behavior and Habitat Selection
• Some organisms
– Do not occupy all of their potential range
• Species distribution
– May be limited by habitat selection behavior
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Biotic Factors
• Biotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
– Interactions with other species
– Predation
– Competition
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• A specific case of an herbivore limiting
distribution of a food species
EXPERIMENT W. J. Fletcher tested the effects of two algae-eating animals, sea urchins and limpets, on seaweed
abundance near Sydney, Australia. In areas adjacent to a control site, either the urchins, the limpets, or both were removed.
Fletcher observed a large difference in seaweed growth between areas with and without sea urchins.
RESULTS
Figure 50.8
Seaweed cover (%)
100
Sea
urchin
80
60
Limpet
40
Only limpets removed
Control (both
urchins and
limpets present)
20
0
August
1982
Both limpets
and urchins
removed
Only
urchins
removed
February
1983
CONCLUSION
August
1983
February
1984
Removing both
limpets and
urchins or
removing only
urchins increased
seaweed cover
dramatically.
Almost no
seaweed grew
in areas where
both urchins and
limpets were
present, or where
only limpets were
removed.
Removing both limpets and urchins resulted in the greatest increase of seaweed cover, indicating
that bothspecies have some influence on seaweed distribution. But since removing only urchins greatly increased
seaweed growth whileremoving only limpets had little effect, Fletcher concluded that sea urchins have a much
greater effect than limpets in limitingseaweed distribution.
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Abiotic Factors
• Abiotic factors that affect the distribution of
organisms may include
– Temperature
– Water
– Sunlight
– Wind
– Rocks and soil
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Temperature
• Environmental temperature
– Is an important factor in the distribution of
organisms because of its effects on
biological processes
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Water
• Water availability among habitats
– Is another important factor in species
distribution
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Sunlight
• Light intensity and quality
– Can affect photosynthesis in ecosystems
• Light
– Is also important to the development and
behavior of organisms sensitive to the
photoperiod
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Wind
• Wind
– Amplifies the effects of temperature on
organisms by increasing heat loss due to
evaporation and convection
– Can change the morphology of plants
Figure 50.9
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Rocks and Soil
• Many characteristics of soil limit the
distribution of plants and thus the animals
that feed upon them
– Physical structure
– pH
– Mineral composition
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Climate
• Four major abiotic components make up
climate
– Temperature, water, sunlight, and wind
• Climate
– Is the prevailing weather conditions in a
particular area
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• Climate patterns can be described on two
scales
– Macroclimate, patterns on the global,
regional, and local level
– Microclimate, very fine patterns, such as
those encountered by the community of
organisms underneath a fallen log
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Global Climate Patterns
• Earth’s global climate patterns
– Are determined largely by the input of solar
energy and the planet’s movement in space
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• Sunlight intensity plays a major part in
determining the Earth’s climate patterns
LALITUDINAL VARIATION IN SUNLIGHT INTENSITY
North Pole
60N
Low angle of incoming sunlight
30N
Tropic of Cancer
0 (equator)
Sunlight directly overhead
Tropic of Capricorn
30S
Low angle of incoming sunlight
Figure 50.10
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Atmosphere
60S
South pole
Seasonal variation in sunlight intensity
春分
夏至
June solstice: Northern
Hemisphere tilts toward
sun; summer begins in
Northern Hemisphere;
winter begins in
Southern Hemisphere.
60N
30N
0 (equator)
March equinox: Equator faces sun
directly;neither pole tilts toward
sun; all regions on Earth
experience 12 hours of daylight
and 12 hours ofdarkness.
30S
冬至
秋分
Constant tilt
of 23.5
September equinox: Equator
faces sun directly; neither pole
tilts toward sun; all regions on
Earth experience 12 hours of
daylight and 12 hours of
Figure 50.10
darkness.
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December solstice:
NorthernHemisphere
tilts away from sun;
winter begins in
Northern
Hemisphere; summer
begins in Southern
Hemisphere.
• Air circulation and wind patterns play major
parts in determining the Earth’s climate
patterns
GLOBAL AIR CIRCULATION AND PRECIPITATION PATTERNS
60N
30N
Descending
dry air
absorbs
moisture
0 (equator)
30S
Ascending
moist air
releases
moisture
Descending
dry air
absorbs
moisture
0
60S
Arid
zone
Figure 50.10
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Tropics
Arid
zone
GLOBAL WIND PATTERNS
Arctic
Circle
60N
Westerlies
30N
Northeast trades
Doldrums
Southeast trades
0
(equator)
30S
Westerlies
60S
Antarctic
Circle
Figure 50.10
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Regional, Local, and Seasonal Effects on Climate
• Various features of the landscape
– Contribute to local variations in climate
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Bodies of Water
• Oceans and their currents, and large lakes
– Moderate the climate of nearby terrestrial
environments
1 Warm air
2 Air cools at
high elevation.
3 Cooler
air sinks
over water.
Cool air over water
moves
inland, replacing
4
rising warm air over land.
Figure 50.11
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over land rises.
Mountains
• Mountains have a significant effect on
– The amount of sunlight reaching an area
– Local temperature
– Rainfall
1 As moist air moves in
off the Pacific Ocean and
encounters the westernmost
mountains, it flows upward,
cools at higher altitudes,
and drops a large amount
of water. The world’s tallest
trees, the coastal redwoods,
thrive here.
2 Farther inland, precipitation
increases again as the air
moves up and over higher
mountains. Some of the world’s
deepest snow packs occur here.
3 On the eastern side of the
Sierra Nevada, there is little
precipitation. As a result of
this rain shadow, much of
central Nevada is desert.
Wind
direction
East
Pacific
Ocean
Sierra
Nevada
Coast
Range
Figure 50.12
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Seasonality
• The angle of the sun
– Leads to many seasonal changes in local
environments
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• Lakes
– Are sensitive to seasonal temperature change
– Experience seasonal turnover
Lake depth (m)
In winter, the coldest water in the lake (0°C) lies just
below the surface ice; water is progressively warmer at
deeper levels of the lake, typically 4–5°C at the bottom.
O2 (mg/L)
0
4
Spring
Winter
8
12
8
16
2
4
4
4
4C
24
O2 concentration
0
Lake depth (m)
1
2 In spring, as the sun melts the ice, the surface water warms to 4°C
and sinks below the cooler layers immediately below, eliminating the
thermal stratification. Spring winds mix the water to great depth,
bringing oxygen (O2) to the bottom waters (see graphs) and
nutrients to the surface.
O2 (mg/L)
0
4 8
12
8
16
4
4
4
4
4
4C
24
High
Medium
O2 (mg/L)
0
4
8
12
8
16
24
Figure 50.13
4
Autumn
4
4
4
4C
4
In autumn, as surface water cools rapidly, it sinks below the
underlying layers, remixing the water until the surface begins
to freeze and the winter temperature profile is reestablished.
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4
Thermocline
3
22
20
18
8
6
5
4C
Summer
Lake depth (m)
Lake depth (m)
Low
O2 (mg/L)
0
4
8
12
8
16
24
In summer, the lake regains a distinctive thermal profile, with
warm surface water separated from cold bottom water by a narrow
vertical zone of rapid temperature change, called a thermocline.
Microclimate
• Microclimate
– Is determined by fine-scale differences in
abiotic factors
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Long-Term Climate Change(長期氣候變遷)
• One way to predict future global climate change.
– Is to look back at the changes that occurred
previously
Figure 50.14.
Current range and
predicted range for
the American beech
under two scenarios
of climate change.
Current range
Predicted range
Overlap
(a) 4.5C warming over
next century
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(b) 6.5C warming over
next century
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• Concept 50.3: Abiotic and biotic factors
influence the structure and dynamics of aquatic
biomes
• Varying combinations of both biotic and abiotic
factors
– Determine the nature of Earth’s many biomes
• Biomes
– Are the major types of ecological associations
that occupy broad geographic regions of land
or water
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• The examination of biomes will begin with
Earth’s aquatic biomes
30N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30S
Continental
shelf
Key
Figure 50.15
Lakes
Rivers
Coral reefs
Oceanic pelagic
zone
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Estuaries
Intertidal zone
Abyssal zone
(below oceanic
pelagic zone)
• Aquatic biomes
– Account for the largest part of the
biosphere in terms of area
– Can contain fresh or salt water
• Oceans
– Cover about 75% of Earth’s surface
– Have an enormous impact on the biosphere
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• Many aquatic biomes
– Are stratified into zones or layers defined by
light penetration, temperature, and depth
Intertidal zone
Neritic zone
Littoral
zone
Limnetic
zone
0
Oceanic zone
Photic zone
200 m
Continental
shelf
Pelagic
zone
Benthic
zone
Photic
zone
Aphotic
zone
Pelagic
zone
Benthic
zone
Aphotic
zone
2,500–6,000 m
Abyssal zone
(deepest regions of ocean floor)
(a)
Zonation in a lake. The lake environment is generally classified
on the basis of three physical criteria: light penetration (photic
and aphotic zones), distance from shore and water depth
(littoral and limnetic zones), and whether it is open water
(pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic zone).
Figure 50.16a, b
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(b) Marine zonation. Like lakes, the marine environment is
generally classified on the basis of light penetration (photic
and aphotic zones), distance from shore and water depth
(intertidal, neritic, and oceanic zones), and whether it is open
water (pelagic zone) or bottom (benthic and abyssal zones).
• Lakes
LAKES
An oligotrophic lake in
Grand Teton, Wyoming
Figure 50.17
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A eutrophic lake in Okavango
delta, Botswana
• Wetlands
WETLANDS
Figure 50.17
Okefenokee National Wetland Reserve in Georgia
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• Streams and rivers
STREAMS AND RIVERS
Figure 50.17
A headwater stream in the
Great Smoky Mountains
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The Mississippi River far
form its headwaters
• Estuaries
ESTUARIES
Figure 50.17 An estuary in a low coastal plain of Georgia
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• Intertidal zones
INTERTIDAL ZONES
Figure 50.17
Rocky intertidal zone on the Oregon coast
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• Oceanic pelagic biome
OCEANIC PELAGIC BIOME
Figure 50.17 Open ocean off the island of Hawaii
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• Coral reefs
CORAL REEFS
Figure 50.17
A coral reef in the Red Sea
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• Marine benthic zone
MARINE BENTHIC ZONE
Figure 50.17 A deep-sea hydrothermal vent community
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• Concept 50.4: Climate largely determines the
distribution and structure of terrestrial biomes
• Climate
– Is particularly important in determining why
particular terrestrial biomes are found in
certain areas
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Climate and Terrestrial Biomes
• Climate has a great impact on the distribution
of organisms, as seen on a climograph
Temperate grassland
Desert
Tropical forest
Annual mean temperature (ºC)
30
Temperate
broadleaf
forest
15
Coniferous
forest
0
Arctic and
alpine
tundra
15
100
Figure 50.18
200
300
Annual mean precipitation (cm)
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400
• The distribution of major terrestrial biomes
30N
Tropic of
Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
Capricorn
30S
Key
Tropical forest
Figure 50.19
Savanna
Desert
Chaparral
Temperate grassland
Temperate broadleaf forest
Coniferous forest
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Tundra
High mountains
Polar ice
General Features of Terrestrial Biomes
• Terrestrial biomes
– Are often named for major physical or climatic
factors and for their predominant vegetation
• Stratification
– Is an important feature of terrestrial biomes
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• Tropical forest
TROPICAL FOREST
Figure 50.20
A tropical rain forest in Borneo
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• Desert
DESERT
Figure 50.20 The Sonoran Desert in southern Arizona
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• Savanna
SAVANNA
Figure 50.20
A typical savanna in Kenya
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• Chaparral
CHAPARRAL
Figure 50.20
An area of chaparral in California
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• Temperate grassland
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND
Figure 50.20
Sheyenne National Grassland in North Dakota
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• Coniferous forest
CONIFEROUS FOREST
Rocky Mountain National Park in Colorado
Figure 50.20
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• Temperate broadleaf forest
TEMPERATE BROADLEAF FOREST
Figure 50.20
Great Smoky Mountains National Park in North Carolina
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• Tundra
TUNDRA
Figure 50.20
Denali National Park, Alaska, in autumn
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