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Courtney Schwartz--History Notes
"Life In Mesopotamia." Ancient Mesopotamia: This History, Our History. Life in
Mesopotamia. University of Chicago, n.d. Web. 04 Apr. 2013.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------● Homo erectus began to migrate from Africa 2 million years ago
● Went to Near East, then Europe and Asia
● The Paleolithic Period lasted from approximately 2.5 million BCE to 14,000 BCE
● Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) is split into three different periods: Lower, Middle,
and Upper
● These divisions are primarily based on living changes, advancements in stone
technology and weapons, and diet differences
● Hunted, gathered, and fished
● Lived in caves mostly
● Epipaleolithic Age (14,000 BCE-9000 BCE): began to live in pit houses (circular or
semi-circular). Many had plaster, fireplaces, and were composed of several different
rooms
● 11,000-6500 BCE: domestication of plants and animals
● Farming was possible due to high levels of rainfall and the location (in between two
rivers)
● Rivers dried up in the summer --> irrigation systems developed
● 9000 BCE-Homo sapiens sapiens
● 6000-4000 BCE: modern humans began to settle in Mesopotamia and form farming
communities. Several towns with approximately 2000 residents
● Cities: first appeared around 4000-3500 BCE
○ Centers of Mesopotamian life
○ Reasons for city development:
■ Lack of rainfall-brought people together to build canals and other
irrigational systems
■ Protection (invasions=common b/c it was in between 2 rivers--easily
accessible for enemies)-brought together to construct protective systems
○ Babylon
■ Euphrates ran through the center
■ Walled city--defense purposes; surrounded city for 10 miles
○ Eridu
■ First city according to the Mesopotamians (didn’t believe in Garden of
Eden)
● Math
○ Invented place value and concept of zero
○ System of weights and measures used as currency (barley, then silver)
● Writing
○ Believed to have invented writing (c. 3500 BCE)
○ Wrote on clay tablets and used reeds to write with
○ Originally used pictograms (represented objects and ideas, not letters)
○ Switched to Cuneiform (too difficult to draw in the clay)
○ Cuneiform = wedge-based symbols
○ Development of writing led to the Information Revolution
■ Messages could be sent
○ Reason for development:
■ Trading records
■ Govt. procedures
■ Eventually laws (Hammurabi’s code)
○ Taught scribes w/ writing books
○ Literary achievements
■ Connection to Gilgamesh (written c. 2000 BCE)
○ Kudurru
■ Made of stone (very rare and expensive)--signifies importance
■ Kept records of sales (very detailed)
■ Stored in temples
● Protection of the gods
● Accessible to the general population
● Law (Hammurabi’s Code)
○ First record of codified laws (from Babylonian Civilization)
○ Written sometime btw. 1792-1750 BCE (length of Hammurabi’s rule)
○ Carved into 7.5 ft stela (upright standing pieces of stone)
○ Placed inside several temples
■ Showed authority and achievements of King Hammurabi
■ People knew what they could and couldn’t do
■ Set precedent for future rulers
○ Depicted Hammurabi and Shamash (sun god and god of justice)
■ Shamash gave Hammurabi a rod and ring--symbols of king and justice
■ Shows that the gods gave the laws
○ Prologue
■ Hammurabi = appointed by the gods as ruler of the Babylonians, caregiver
and defender of the weaker members of society, and needed to know the
needs of the patron gods/goddesses of all cities
○ Main concepts behind the law:
■ “Eye for an eye” (retaliation
■ Different punishments for different social classes/amounts of wealth
■ Govt. = responsible for the welfare of the people
"Announcing the Sky." Calendars Through The Ages. N.p., 2008. Web. 07 Apr. 2013.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------● Based on celestial movements (sun, moon, stars)
● calendar comes from the Latin word Kalends (first day of each month) which can be
derived from the word calare (“to proclaim)
○ In Classical Rome, one of the priests (Pontifex) would report to the King/Emperor
when there was a new moon, signifying the first day of the month
■ Celtic tribes, Babylon, Germanic tribes, and Hebrew tribes also began
their months at the same time
■ Months were either 29 or 30 days (30-day months were considered better,
more full, and luckier than 29 day months)
● Basic units/components of calendars:
○ Day--complete rotation of the Earth
○ Year--complete revolution of the Earth around the sun; 365.24 days
■ Tropical year--time it takes for the Earth to revolve around the Sun
starting from a fixed point and going back to that exact point; 365.242190
(decreasing)
● Tropical comes from tropikos meaning “to turn” (Greek)
● Particularly based on the time in between two vernal equinoxes
● Developed by Caesar and Sosigenes
● Formula for calculations of the tropical year:
○ 365.2421896698 - 0.00000615359 T - 7.29E-10 T2 +
2.64E-10 T3 (days)
○ T = (JD - 2451545.0) / 36525
○ JD represents the Julian Day number (day)
○ Proposed by Laskar in 1986
■ Sidereal Year--time it takes for the Earth to complete an orbit of the Sun;
365.2654 days
■ Lunar Year--consists of twelve synodic months; 354.36707
○ Month--complete revolution of the Moon around the Earth; 29.53 days (varies)
■ Synodic month--time to get from one new moon to the next; 29.5305889
days (increasing)
● 29.5305888531 + 0.00000021621 T - 3.64E-10 T2 (days)
● Proposed by Chapront-Touze and Chapront
○ Metonic Cycle--occurs every 19 years, when the number of synodic months is
closest to being an integer (234.997 synodic months). During this time, the moon
phases fall on the same dates. Discovered by Meton (Athenian astronomer; 5th
century BCE)
● Different forms of calendars:
○ Solar Calendar--based on the tropical year
■ Based on the movements of the Earth around the sun (not based on the
Moon’s movements)
■ Common calendar used today.
■ Christian/Gregorian Calendar
■ Accounts for leap years to maintain consistency with the tropical year
○ Lunar Calendar--based on the lunar year
■ Based on the movements of the Moon (not based on the Earth’s
movements around the Sun).
■ Ex: Islamic Calendar
○ Lunisolar Calendar
■ Combines both the movement of the Earth around the Sun (years) and the
movement of the Moon (months)
■ Bases months on lunar movements
■ Accounts for a leap month (approximately every three years in Chinese
Calendar and seven times per Metonic Cycle in Jewish Calendar)
■ Ex: Jewish/Hebrew Calendar and Chinese Calendar
● Calendars in Various Civilizations:
○ Egypt--added five days on to their year (made it 365 days) after observing the
movements of Sirius (constellation that depicts a dog)
○ Babylon--fixed calendar instead of observing moon phases (30 days, 12 months).
Added on five extra days at the end of the year.
○ Zoroastrian (Persia)--similar to the Babylonian calendar. Five extra days were
called “gatha days” (gatha = song). Each day in the Zoroastrian calendar had a
specific name instead of number.
○ Some modern Zoroastrians add an extra day for leap years (started this in 1906)
○ Sassanid (Persia)--twelve months with thirty days in each. Added in an extra
month every 120 years.
○ French Revolutionary Calendar (Republican Calendar)
■ Only used from 1793-1801 CE (abolished by Napoleon) and in 1871
(Paris Commune)
■ Day = 10 hours; 100 min/hour; 100 sec/min
■ Month = 30 days; 12 months/year + 5-6 extra days
■ Months rhymed in groups of three (correlated with seasons)
■ Décades = division of the month. Included 10 days. Replaced the week.
■ New Year began on the autumnal equinox. Difficult system when
accounting for leap years b/c of the equinox.
■ Leap years occurred every four years
○ Mayas--extremely accurate calendar
■ Mayan pyramid Chichén Itzá used as a calendar (built 1050)
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● Had four stairways each with 91 steps and a platform at the top
(adds up to 365; number of days in their year)
The Long Count (similar to a Julian Day Calendar, which counts the days
since its origin)
● Base-18 and base-20 calendar, with the kin being the basic unit
(comparable to a day)
Cimi--comparable to a week (Tzolkin date)
Haab--consisted of 20 “months” of 18 days each, plus an additional five
days at the end of the “year”
Used three calendars at once when describing the date (Long Count, Cimi,
Haab)
Recognized that a year was slightly longer than 365 days
Adas, Michael, Stuart B. Schwartz, and Marc J. Gilbert. World Civilizations: The Global
Experience. By Peter N. Stearns. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River: Longman, 2011. 80-103. Print.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Indus River Valley-Cities
● Two main cities: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro (not much information is known about
them due to lack of existing records)
● Were planned on a grid system (influence for current major cities in the world; ancient
version of city blocks), had indoor plumbing, and developed drainage/irrigation systems
Phoenicians-Alphabet
● Developed an advanced 22 character alphabet (most had hundreds of characters)
● Direct influence for our alphabet today, as well as many others (i.e. Greek)
Classical China-Confucianism
● Provides a social hierarchy and maintains order in govt.
● Stresses the importance of “good govt.” and “virtuous leaders” (should be humble,
sincere, and not greedy; people have a right to rebel if the ruler isn’t doing his job
properly), tradition and customs, moderation and balance, love of wisdom and knowledge,
and contains a code of conduct for ethical behavior
● Five relationships--shows respect and maintains social/political order
○ Ruler to ruled (most important)
○ Husband to wife
○ Father to son
○ Older brother to younger brother
○ Older “friend” to younger “friend”
● Filial piety--religious devotion to family and worship of ancestors
● Used during the Han dynasty for Civil Service exams
● Analects--book written by Confucius that stated the Confucian doctrine
Classical Greece-Government and Golden Age of Athens
● Direct Democracy
○ Politics comes from the Greek word polis meaning city-state (shows that political
issues were interests of the people and a part of their daily lives)
○ Citizens = adult males (no slaves, women, or foreigners). Also had to own land
■ Half of all adult males weren’t citizens (b/c of the restrictions)
■ Rights = voting, representation in govt., own property, and defend
themselves in court
■ Responsibilities = had to serve in govt. when called upon and defend his
city-state during a time of war or an invasion
○ Citizens elected their officials directly (not through chosen representatives)
○ Bicameral legislature
■ Assembly: met every ten days and all citizens were eligible for
participation
■ Council: made up of 400 aristocrats
○ Officials were appointed to brief terms to control the distribution of power
(corresponds to an executive branch) and all appointments were subject to review
by the Assembly
● Athens
○ Pluralistic
■ Freedom of speech
■ Believed that change was possible
○ Limited participation in govt., but form was a direct democracy (technically, it
wasn’t a true democracy due to restrictions on govt. participation and citizenship)
○ Well-rounded education for males
■ Trained in 3 main fields: academic (reading, writing, arithmetic), physical
fitness, and music (lessons in singing and the lyre)
○ Girls taught how to be good wives and mothers, cooking, cleaning, and other
aspects of running the home
○ More inequality between males and females
● Sparta
○ Monolithic
■ Few choices and little freedom
■ Only one way of thinking and behaving
○ Militaristic aristocratic govt.
○ Rigorous military training for boys and girls
■ Boys were taken from their homes at the age of seven to train to become
soldiers
○ More equality between males and females
● Golden Age of Athens--a time of peace and prosperity characterized by advancements in
the arts, literature, math, science, technology, philosophy, etc.
○ Strong ruler = Pericles
■ 3 Goals: strengthen the democracy, strengthen the Greek Empire, and
glorify Athens
○ Science
■ Aristotle (386-322 BCE): invented a method for arguing according to the
laws of logic (applied it to the basics of psychology, physics, and biology),
provided the basis for the Scientific Method, and developed an early
classification system.
■ Hippocrates (460-370 BCE): developed the Hippocratic Oath (an ethical
code of conduct for the practice of medicine; still taken by all medical
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doctors today) and discovered that there was a natural cause to all diseases
(knew that there was also a cure for illnesses).
Mathematics
■ Pythagoras (570-495 BCE): developed the Pythagorean Theorem for right
triangles
Drama: invented by the Greeks as a form of expression of pride and to honor the
gods
■ Comedy
● Deliberate clumsiness or embarrassment for the characters
● Vulgar humor
● Ex: Lysistrata by Aristophanes
■ Tragedy
● Topics mainly focused on love, war, hatred, and betrayal
● Ex: The Oresteia by Aeschylus, Oedipus the King and Antigone by
Sophocles, and Medea by Euripides
Epic Poems
■ Connection to The Odyssey and Homer
Art
■ Sculpture: figures were depicted as graceful, strong, and perfectly formed.
Based on Olympic athletes. Faces showed little emotion, and sculptors
tried to capture the body in motion. Balance, order, and proportions were
very important to sculptors.
● Ex: Phidias (statue of Athena in the Parthenon) and Discabolis by
Myron (Discus Thrower)
■ Paintings: also focused on the human form. Detailed paintings were very
common on pottery vases (amphora), and the images depicted everyday
human life.
■ Architecture: used to showcase Athenian pride in their city
● 3 different types of columns: Doric (simplest), Ionic, and
Corinthian (most detailed)
● Doric columns were used to build the Parthenon
History: comes from the Greek word historia, which means “investigation”
■ Herodotus (484-425 BCE): “Father of History”. Asked questions,
recorded answers, and checked the reliability of his sources. Studied
politics, individuals of note, social behavior and customs, and religion.
Philosophy
■ Socrates (469-399 BCE): encouraged individuals to think for themselves
and believed that it the main goal of humans was to “improve the soul”.
Invented the Socratic Method, which stressed teaching by a question and
answer approach. Famous quote: “the unexamined life is not worth
living”. Condemned to death for defying the Athenian govt (chose it
instead of being exiled). Recognized as a martyr today.
■ Plato (427-347 BCE): student of Socrates who was considered to have the
greatest insight and wisdom of the main three philosophers of the time.
Wrote The Republic, which discussed a perfect society that consisted of
three social groups (farmers and artisans, warriors, and the ruling class).
Also believed that the government should only be ruled by philosophers.
■ Aristotle: student of Plato. Questioned the world, common human belief,
and knowledge. Stressed the importance of balance and moderation in
human life. Later in his life, he opened his own school called Lyceum.
Classical Rome-Government and Law
● Republic
○ Comes from the Latin term res publica, which means “public affairs”
○ People chose govt. officials
○ Could only have a dictator in a time of crisis
○ Rise of the Republic
■ Tarquin the Proud (7th century BCE) was a very harsh dictator, who was
overthrown by the aristocrats
■ The aristocrats promised that there would never be a dictator again
■ If anyone tried to become a dictator, that person would be sentenced to
death
○ Executive Branch
■ Two consuls, who essentially had kingly powers
■ Magistrates, who were elected to assist the consuls
■ Consuls and magistrates elected annually
○ Legislative Branch
■ Senate: consisted of 300 patricians (upper class citizens). Senate members
advised the consuls and proposed laws. They held their position for life
(provided govt. stability).
■ Assembly: all citizens could be a part of the Assembly. Carried out
similar functions as the Senate.
● Twelve Tables (450 BCE)
○ Served as the basis for the Roman law code, as well as many law codes to follow
(i.e. current U.S. laws)
○ Laws were codified and displayed publicly at the Forum
○ Limited patriarchal powers and gave greater protection to the plebeians (lower
class members of society)--regulated social life (prior to codification, males and
patricians could modify unwritten laws to their own benefit)
○ Ex:
■ Innocent until proven guilty
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Right to face your accuser in court
Right to defend yourself in court
Any reasonable doubt would result in a not guilty verdict
Unfair laws can be changed (laws should be able to evolve to meet
changing conditions in society)
All men are equal in the eyes of the law
Common sense fairness
The punishment should fit the crime
Right to own property (citizens and women)
Renaissance
● Occurred primarily due to the Crusades (re-exposed Europe to what had been “forgotten”
after the fall of Rome and the Dark Ages)
● Began in Italy during the 1300s (lasted into the 1500s)
○ Increased commercial activity
○ Wealthy families that began to patronize the arts
○ Competitive city-states
○ Center of Roman Empire
○ Characteristics of the Renaissance
■ Secularism--moved beyond religious focus of the Middle Ages (more
interested in worldly, scholarly topics)
● Began to write in both Italian (spoken language) and Latin
(religious language)
● Writing didn’t focus on medieval logic and theology; focused more
on love and pride (Petrarch and Boccaccio = famous authors)
■ Realism (in art)
● Studied anatomy to become better artists
● Famous artists and their works:
○ Leonardo da Vinci--considered to be a “Renaissance Man”
(artist, scientist, inventor). Most famous work is Mona
Lisa
○ Michelangelo--painter and sculptor. Most famous work is
David and The Creation of Adam
○ Raphael--artist, whose most famous work is a self-portrait
■ Classicism--revived Greco-Roman influences and culture in art,
architecture, govt., law, etc.
■ Humanism--humankind became the center of intellectual and artistic
thoughts and accomplishments
■ Machiavellianism (Niccolo Machiavelli)
● Stressed that “the end justifies the means”
● Wrote The Prince, which contained his ideology
● Believed that all actions were acceptable, as long as the end results
proved to be worth it
● Supported absolute rulers
○ Impacts
■ Merchants became more profit-seeking (more respected due to less
religious emphasis)
■ Govt. experimented w/ new ideas and concepts
● More interested in well-being of the population, not divine
leadership
● Sponsored cultural activities
● Focused on improving the economy and military
● Northern Renaissance (1450-1600s)
○ Occurred in France, Germany, England, Spain, and the Low Countries
○ More religious than the Italian Renaissance (blend of religion and secularism)
○ Only affected the wealthy members of society (poor people couldn’t read or
afford to patronize the arts)
○ Famous writers = Shakespeare (England) and Cervantes (Spain)
○ Political changes--elaborate palaces, ceremonies, artwork, architecture, and other
luxury goods became more important to the rulers