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Lesson 6 Verbs--Active and Passive Voices, Direct and Indirect Speeches 6.1 Active Voice and Passive Voice There are two special forms for verbs called voice: 1. Active voice 2. Passive voice 6.1.1 The active voice is the “normal” voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object receives the action of the verb. Eg. 6.1.2 Everybody drinks water. (subject – verb – object) The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the “normal” voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. 6.1.2.1 The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb. Eg. Everybody drinks water. (active voice) (subject – active verb – object) Water is drunk. (passive voice) (subject – passive verb) 6.1.2.2 In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb. Eg. Water is drunk. (subject – verb) 6.1.2.3 The transitive verb in the active voice becomes intransitive in the passive voice. Eg. Everybody drinks water. (active voice) (subject – transitive verb – object) Water is drunk. (passive voice) (subject – intransitive verb) In the first sentence, drinks is a transitive verb taking water as its object. The 1 sentence can be passivized with the direct object water as the grammatical subject in the second sentence (passive voice). This shift is called promotion of the object. 6.1.2.4 The passive-voice construction cannot take an object. The passivized sentence could be continued with the agent. Eg. Water is drunk by everybody. (passive voice) (subject – intransitive verb – agent) 6.1.2.5 Construction of the Passive Voice The structure of the passive voice is very simple: subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle) The main verb is always in its past participle form. Look at these examples: subject auxiliary verb (to be) main verb (past participle) is drunk by everyone 100 people are employed by this company. I am paid in HK dollars. We are paid in euros. Are they paid in yen? Water 6.1.2.6 not Use of the Passive Voice We use the passive voice when: we want to make the active object more important we do not know the active subject subject verb object 2 give importance to active object (President Kennedy) President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald. active subject unknown My wallet has been stolen. ? Note that we always use by to introduce the passive agent, as the verb in passive voice is intransitive (see 6.1.2.3) and cannot take an object (see 6.1.2.4), such as the sentence: Fish are eaten by cats. Look at this sentence: He was killed with a gun. Normally we use by to introduce the passive agent. But the gun is not the active subject. The gun did not kill him. He was killed by somebody with a gun. In the active voice, it would be: Somebody killed him with a gun. The gun is the instrument. Somebody is the “agent” or “doer.” 6.1.2.7 Conjugation for the Passive Voice We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example: present simple: It is made present continuous: It is being made present perfect: It has been made Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses: infinitive simple to be washed present It is washed. past It was washed. future It will be washed. 3 continuous perfect simple perfect continuous conditional It would be washed. present It is being washed. past It was being washed. future It will be being washed. conditional It would be being washed. present It has been washed. past It had been washed. future It will have been washed. conditional It would have been washed. present It has been being washed. past It had been being washed. future It will have been being washed. conditional It would have been being washed. Adapted from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-voice.htm. 6.2 Direct Speech and Indirect Speech We often have to give information about what people say or think. In order to do this you can use direct or quoted speech, or indirect or reported speech. 6.2.1 Direct Speech / Quoted Speech Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech, sometimes called quoted speech, because what a person says appears within quotation marks ("..."), and should be word for word. Eg. The teacher said, "Today's lesson is on direct and indirect speeches." "Today's lesson is on direct and indirect speeches," the teacher said. 4 6.2.2 Indirect Speech / Reported Speech 6.2.2.1 No quotation marks in Indirect / Reported Speech Indirect speech, sometimes called reported speech, doesn't use quotation marks to enclose what the person said and it doesn't have to be word for word. 6.2.2.2 Tense changes in Indirect / Reported Speech 6.2.2.2.1 In indirect / reported speech, the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past, too. Eg. Direct speech: "I'm going to shop," she said. Indirect speech: She said she was going to shop. 6.2.2.2.2 As a rule when you report something someone has said you go back a tense. Eg. Direct speech Indirect speech Present simple Past simple She said, "It's cold." She said it was cold. Present continuous Past continuous She said, "I'm teaching English." She said she was teaching English. Present perfect simple Past perfect simple She said, "I've been on the web since 2000." She said she had been on the web since 2000. Present perfect continuous Past perfect continuous She said, "I've been teaching English She said she had been teaching English for five years." for five years. Past simple Past perfect She said, "I taught online yesterday." She said she had taught online yesterday. Past continuous Past perfect continuous She said, "I was teaching earlier." She said she had been teaching earlier. Past perfect Past perfect She said, "The lesson had already NO CHANGE - She said the lesson had 5 started when he arrived." already started when he arrived. Past perfect continuous Past perfect continuous She said, "I'd already been teaching for five minutes." NO CHANGE - She said she'd already been teaching for five minutes. 6.2.2.2.3 In complex sentences the verb in the time clause may not change. Eg. Direct speech Indirect speech Bill said, “I was watching TV when Bill said that he had been watching TV Jim called.” when Jim called. 6.2.2.2.4 Speech, Changes of helping / modal verbs in Indirect / Reported 6.2.2.2.4.1 Modal verb forms also sometimes change. Eg. Direct speech Indirect speech will would She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow." She said she would teach English online tomorrow. can could She said, "I can teach English online." She said she could teach English online. must had to She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online." She said she had to have a computer to teach English online. shall should She said, "What shall we learn today?" She asked what we should learn today. may might She said, "May I open a new browser?" She asked if she might open a new browser. 6 6.2.2.2.4.2 There is no change for the following modal verbs: could, would, should, might and ought to. Eg. Direct speech Indirect speech She said, “I could do that.” She said she could do that. He said, “I would go to the party.” He said he would go to the party. She said, “They should come.” She said they should come. "I might go to the cinema," he said. He said he might go to the cinema. “I ought to do that,” she said. She said she ought to do that. 6.2.2.2.5 Indirect / Reported speech in present tense. 6.2.2.2.5.1 You can use the present tense in reported speech if you want to say that something is still true, i.e. my name has always been and will always be Peter, so: Direct speech Indirect speech He said his name was Peter. "My name is Peter," he said. He said his name is Peter. 6.2.2.2.5.2 You can also use the present tense if you are talking about a future event. Direct speech (exact quote) "Next week's lesson is on reported speech," she said. Indirect speech (not exact) She said next week's lesson is on reported speech. 7 6.2.2.2.5.3 You can use the present tense if the reported words are always true. Direct speech Copernicus said, “The planets move around the Sun.” Indirect speech Copernicus said that the planets move around the Sun. 6.2.2.2.5.4 You can use the present tense if the reported words are true at the time of reporting. Direct speech Peter said, “I’m meeting Margaret tomorrow.” Indirect speech Peter said he is meeting Margaret tomorrow. (reported on the same day, tomorrow still refers to tomorrow) Peter said he was meeting Margaret the following day. (reported later, the meeting has already happened) 6.2.2.2.5.5 You can use the present tense if the reporting verb is in present or future tense. Direct speech Indirect speech Margaret said, “I love you.” Margaret says she loves me. (the reporting verb says is in simple present tense) Peter said, “I’m always there for you.” Peter will tell you he's always there for you. (the reporting verb will tell is in simple future tense) 8 6.2.2.2.6 Reporting Conditional Sentences. 6.2.2.2.6.1 Reporting First Conditional Sentences. When reporting a first conditional sentence, the following tense changes may be applied. Direct speech Mary said, "If we leave now, we’ll catch the train." Indirect speech Mary told me that if we leave now, we’ll catch the train. (if we can still catch the train) Mary told me that if we left, we’d catch the train. (if the train has already left) 6.2.2.2.6.2 Reporting Second Conditional Sentences. When reporting a second conditional sentence, the following tense changes may be applied. Direct speech Professor Wilhelm said, "If I had some chalk, I could write on the blackboard." Indirect speech Professor Wilhelm said if he had had some chalk, he could have written on the blackboard. 6.2.2.2.6.3 Reporting Third Conditional Sentences. When reporting a third conditional sentence, we apply no tense changes. Direct speech "If they had been more careful, they wouldn't have been killed in the accident," the policeman muttered. Indirect speech The policeman remarked that they wouldn't have been killed in the accident if they had been more careful. 9 6.2.2.2.6.4 Reporting Zero Conditional Sentences. When reporting a zero conditional sentence, the following tense changes may be applied. Direct speech Indirect speech Present time Linda said, "If John is cursing, it means that he is very angry." Linda said (that) if John is cursing, it means that he is very angry. (if this is a general truth) Linda said if John was cursing, it meant that he was very angry. (if this refers to a past habit; John may have changed or died since then) Past time Alice remarked, “If he was in Hong Alice mentioned that if he was in Hong Kong he always went to visit his uncle.” Kong he always had gone to visit his uncle. (Here only the tense in the main clause changes. No changes are made in the if-clause as it does not express a condition but functions as a time clause.) 6.2.2.2.7 Wish, it's (high) time in Indirect / Reported Speech. When reporting structures such as wish, it's (high) time 是時候了、早該做, etc., the same rules apply as in the case of reporting second and third conditional sentences. Direct speech Indirect speech "I wish I could talk to him!" Bob complained. (present reference) Bob (complained that he) wished he could talk to him. "I wish I could have talked to him!" Bob agonized. (past reference) Bob (lamented that he) wished he could have talked to him. "I wish I hadn’t been there!" moaned Phil (regretted that he) wished he hadn’t 10 Phil. (past reference) been there. "It's high time you started looking after your health," the doctor said. The doctor advised her that it was high time she started looking after her health. 6.2.2.3 Changes of expression of time in Indirect / Reported Speech If the reported sentence contains an expression of time, you must change it to fit in with the time of reporting if it has different meaning at the time of reporting. Expressions of time if reported on a different day this (morning) that (morning) today yesterday these (days) those (days) now then (a month) ago (a month) before last weekend the previous weekend next (week) the following (week) tomorrow the next / following day 6.2.2.4 Changes of expression of place in Indirect / Reported Speech If you report something that someone said in a different place to where you heard it you must change the place (here) to the place (there). Direct speech Indirect speech Eugene asked, "How long have you Eugene asked me how long I'd worked worked here?" there. 6.2.2.5 Changes of pronouns in Indirect / Reported Speech Direct speech Indirect speech 11 Rose said, "I teach English at Oregon State College." 6.2.2.6 Rose said she teaches English at Oregon State College. Reporting verbs used in Indirect / Reported Speech There are many reporting verbs we use in indirect or reported speech. The most common ones are said, told and asked. Others include accused, added, admitted, advised, agreed, alleged, answered, apologized, begged, believed, boasted, claimed, complained, confessed, confirmed, decided, denied, doubted, explained, felt, hoped, implied, insisted, invited, mentioned, offered, ordered, promised, repeated, replied, suggested and thought. 6.2.2.6.1 Jimmy asked Peter what time the movie started. 6.2.2.6.2 We use asked to report questions. Eg. We use told with an object. Eg. Peter told Jimmy the movie started at 7. (Jimmy is the object) 6.2.2.6.3 We usually use said without an object. If said is used with an object we must include to. Eg. Jimmy said he would go to the movie on time. Jimmy said to Peter that he’d go to the movie on time. use told in this case rather than said to.) (Note: We usually 6.2.2.6.4 Properly using other reporting verbs can make what you say much more interesting and informative. Eg. Peter asked Jimmy to go to the movie. To make the sentence more interesting and informative, we can write: Peter invited Jimmy to go to the movie. Peter suggested that Jimmy should go to the movie. Peter advised Jimmy to go to the movie. Peter begged Jimmy to go to the movie. 12 Peter ordered Jimmy to go to the movie. 6.2.2.7 Use of ‘that’ in Indirect / Reported Speech In indirect or reported speech, the word that is often used. However, the use of that is sometimes optional. Eg. Peter told Jimmy that he should go to the movie. Peter told Jimmy he should go to the movie. 6.2.2.7.1 Reporting verb + that-clause add, admit, agree, answer, believe, claim, complain, confess, confirm, decide, deny, doubt, explain, feel, hope, insist, mention, promise, repeat, reply, say, suggest, etc. Direct speech Indirect speech Charles said, “…and I would also like to say that I have been a conscientious employee here for twenty years.” Charles added that he had been a conscientious employee there for twenty years. Judy said, “Sorry, I broke the cup.” Judy admitted that she had broken the cup. Francis said, “Yes, the movie was really good, indeed.” Francis agreed that the movie had been really good. He replied, “I’ve never felt more comfortable, as I’ve been in the shade all afternoon.” He answered that he had never felt more comfortable, because he had been in the shade all afternoon. Thales of Miletus, the Greek philosopher, said, "The Earth is a disk floating on an endless ocean." Thales of Miletus, the Greek Bob yelled: “Of course I didn’t block the road and cause this traffic jam!” Bob claimed that he had not blocked the road and caused the traffic jam. Bruce said, “I hate having to do three essays every week.” Bruce complained that he had to do three essays every week. “Yes, it was me who started that ugly rumor about you. Can you forgive me?” Mary said to Jack. Mary confessed to Jack that she had started an ugly rumor about him. philosopher, believed that the Earth was a disk floating on an endless ocean. 13 Jojo said, “Yes, Jim, the meeting is on tonight.” Jojo confirmed to Jim that the meeting was on that night. Liza said, “Well, I think I’d rather not buy this dress.” Liza decided that she wouldn’t buy that dress. Howie said, “No, I wasn’t in the party.” Howie denied that he had been in the party. Pete said, “I don’t think we’ve gotten the right deal.” Pete doubted that they had gotten the right deal. Albert said, “I could make fire with chocolate, because my friend showed Albert explained that his friend had taught him how to make fire with me how.” chocolate. Mr. Harvard replied, Well, I think we should back him up to avoid bankruptcy.” Mr. Harvard felt that they should back him up to avoid bankruptcy. Bill said, “I hope the weather conditions will turn out okay.”. Bill hoped that the weather conditions would turn out fine. Parka said, “No, I’m absolutely sure that I’ve closed the door.” Parka insisted that he had closed the door. Warren said, “Well, I may take that offer and go on a trip for two months.” Warren casually mentioned that he might take that offer and go on a trip for two months. Lue said, “I will be on time, I promise.” Lue promised that she would be on time. Alice said, “Honey, as I’ve told you before, the girls are going with us.” Alice repeated that she insisted on having the girls going with them. Tom said, “Yes, I’ve finished the assignment.” Tom replied that he had finished the assignment. Pluto said, “We’re all on the same page.” Pluto said that they were all on the same page. Maria said, “Maybe they’ve gotten Maria suggested that they might have gotten lost in the mail system. lost in the mail system.” 6.2.2.7.2 Reporting verb + that-clause with subjunctive 虛擬語氣 advise, agree, demand, insist, prefer, propose, recommend, request, suggest, urge, etc. 14 6.2.2.7.3 Reporting verb + that-clause with should + infinitive advise, agree, demand, insist, prefer, propose, recommend, request, suggest, urge, etc. 6.2.2.7.4 Reporting verb + to + infinitive agree, claim, decide, demand, hope, offer, prefer, promise, refuse, threaten, etc. 6.2.2.7.5 Reporting verb + somebody + to + infinitive ask, advise, allow, beg, command, encourage, forbid, instruct, invite, order, permit, persuade, prefer, recommend, remind, request, tell, urge, warn, want, etc. 6.2.2.8 When reporting questions, the word ‘that’ is never used; instead, we often use the word ‘if’. Eg. Peter asked Jimmy if he would go to the movie. 15