Download cultural communication - Phòng Khoa học - Công nghệ

TRƯỜNG ĐẠI HỌC HÀNG HẢI VIỆT NAM
KHOA NGOẠI NGỮ
THUYẾT MINH
ĐỀ TÀI NCKH CẤP TRƯỜNG
ĐỀ TÀI
COMPILING TEACHING SUPPLEMENTARY
MATERIALS FOR CROSS – CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION COURSE
FOR ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS
AT VIETNAM MARITIME UNIVERSITY
(Xây dựng tài liệu giảng dạy bổ trợ môn Giao tiếp giao văn
hóa cho sinh viên chuyên ngữ trường Đại học Hàng Hải Việt
Nam)
Chủ nhiệm đề tài: Ths. Nguyễn Thị Thúy Thu
Hải Phòng, tháng 5/2016
CONTENT
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
1. Rationale .................................................................................................. 1
2. Aims of the study .................................................................................... 1
3. Significance of the study ......................................................................... 1
4. Methodology of the study........................................................................ 2
5. Scope of the study ................................................................................... 3
6. Design of the study .................................................................................. 3
DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................. 4
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING CROSS – CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION........................................................................................ 4
1.1. Definition of culture ............................................................................... 4
1.1.1. Language .......................................................................................... 4
1.1.2. Culture .............................................................................................. 4
1.1.3. The components of culture ............................................................... 6
1.2. Definition of Communication ................................................................. 7
1.3. Communication competence (CC) ......................................................... 8
1.4. The definition of cross-cultural communication .................................... 9
1.5. Culture shock and how to avoid culture shock? ................................... 10
1.5.1. Culture schock? Why culture shock? ............................................. 10
1.5.2. Main factors creating culture shock ............................................... 12
1.5.3. How culture - shock: From honey moon to Culture shock to
integration ................................................................................................. 12
1.5.4. How to cope with culture shock? ................................................... 14
1.6. Practice.................................................................................................. 15
CHAPTER 2: CULTURE IMPACTS ON NON – VERBAL
COMMUNICATION...................................................................................... 20
2.1. Understanding non-verbal communication .......................................... 20
2.2. The importance of nonverbal communication ...................................... 21
2.3. Types of nonverbal communication ..................................................... 22
2.3.1. Gestures .......................................................................................... 22
2.3.2. Postures ........................................................................................... 29
2.4. Cross-cultural nonverbal communication and culture shock ............... 31
CHAPTER 3:CULTURE IMPACTS ON VERBAL COMMUNICATION . 33
3.1. Addressing forms in Vietnamese language and culture ....................... 33
3.1.1. Circular Relationship ...................................................................... 34
3.1.2. Horizontal Relationship- Type 1 .................................................... 34
3.1.4. Dynamic Relationships ................................................................... 36
3.1.5. The dynamic relationship-type II ................................................... 38
3.1.6.The variant of circular relationship. ................................................ 39
3.2. Addressing forms in English - American language and culture........... 40
3.2.1. Addressing forms in English - American ....................................... 40
3.2.2. Terms of affection .......................................................................... 42
3.3. Objectiveness and Subjectiveness ........................................................ 43
3.3.1. Definition of objectiveness and subjective..................................... 43
3.3.2. Objectiveness and Subjectiveness in defining the space ................ 43
3.3.3. Subjective and objective in pragmatics .......................................... 44
3.4. Directness and indirectness .................................................................. 45
3.4.1. Directness ....................................................................................... 45
3.4.2. Indirectness ..................................................................................... 46
3.5. Politeness .............................................................................................. 49
3.5.1.What is politeness? .......................................................................... 49
3.5.2.What is FTA?................................................................................... 50
3.5.3. Speech atcs ..................................................................................... 51
3.5.4. Politeness principles ....................................................................... 52
3.5.5. Politeness strategies ........................................................................ 53
3.5.6. Bald on record – without redressive action .................................... 54
3.5.7. Positive politeness strategies .......................................................... 55
3.5.8. Negative politeness strategies ........................................................ 57
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 61
1. Major findings ....................................................................................... 61
2. Implications for English language teaching .......................................... 61
3. Limitations ............................................................................................. 64
4. Further study.......................................................................................... 64
REFERENCES ............................................................................................... 65
In English ..................................................................................................... 65
In Vietnamese .............................................................................................. 66
Website ........................................................................................................ 67
LIST OF FIGURES IN THE STUDY
LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
Figure 1: Levine and adalman’s iceburg of culture
7
Figure 2: Classification of Communication
8
Figure 3: W-shaped diagram of culture shock
13
Figure 4: Circular Relationship
34
Figure 5: Horizontal Relationship- Type 2. Nguyen
36
Quang (1999:165)
Figure 6: Dynamic relationship type-I
37
Figure 7: Dynamic relationship type-II
38
Figure 8: Dynamic relationship type-II cited in Nguyen
39
Quang (1999:175)
Figure 9: Variant of circular relationship.
40
Figure 10: Possible strategies for doing FTAs (Brown
53
and Levinson, 1987)
Figure 11: Strategies to minimize risk of losing face
(Nguyen Quang, 1999:130)
54
INTRODUCTION
1. Rationale
As stated by Nguyen Quang (1998)“ in communication, only language is
not enough, behind and deep under it, following many tacit rules, are
culture, belief, attitude, norms, values, etc. Each country has its own
culture”.
Cross- cultural communication (CCC) is not a new subject in most
universities nationwide; and it is an interesting and challenging subject.
Materials for this subject are various; however, choosing one course book
seems to be not enough for students to understand well many differences
and similarities between the two cultures and two countries. Therefore,
the author decided to do a research on compiling teaching supplementary
materials for Cross-cultural communication course for English major
students at Vietnam Maritime University (VMU).
2. Aims of the study
The aims of this study are to:
- Research and summarize the information from many cross- cultural
communication books to compile teaching supplementary materials for
English major students at VMU.
- Collect and arrange some cross- cultural communication exercises to
help students deal with the new theory actively.
3. Significance of the study
It is impossible to separate language from culture when communicating
and teaching a foreign language especially at higher level as well. That is
the reason why culture learning should always go hand in hand with
language learning. In the world, studying about cross culture
communication is varied and abundant. Many books written about crosscultural studies, each of these supplies huge knowledge about culture
1
definitions, culture shock, cross-culture communication, and many other
aspects of this field, can be Politeness of Brown and Levinson;
Intercultural communication of R Scollon, SW Scollon, 1; or Languages
and Gestures of McNeill, David; Gestures: the do's and taboos of body
language around the world of Axtell, Roger E. In Vietnam, cross-cultural
studies are recognized well enough with a lot of books such as
Intercultural communication and Cross –culture communication for ELT
written by Nguyen Quang, Doing business in Vietnam: a cultural guide
by Esmond D. Smith Jr. and Cuong Pham.
The cross- cultural communication course book for English major
students at VMU is Beyond Language Intercultural Communication for
English as a Second Language written by Deena R. Levine & Mara B.
Adelman, Prentice Hall Regents (1982). This book indicates the main
aspects of cross – cultural communication but it does not include the
comparing and contrasting analysis between English culture and
Vietnamese culture. Moreover, according to the syllabus of Cross-cultural
communication subject (see the appendix), students have to do self-study
at home to deeply understand what they have learnt in class. Therefore,
the author would like to compile teaching supplementary materials to
give more information about culture differences and similarities between
English and Vietnamese to help students master the language they are
learning and be aware of its cultural background.
4. Methodology of the study
The method of this study is:
- The main method of this study is the contrastive methodology.
- Researching relevant materials
- Consulting with Professors of cross-cultural studies
- Discussing with English and Vietnamese colleagues
2
5. Scope of the study
The author will investigate a number of references materials to build
teaching supplementary materials for cross cultural communication
course for English major students at Vietnam Maritime University.
6. Design of the study
The study is divided into 3 parts:
Part I - Introduction includes rationale, aims of the study, methodology of
the study, the significant and the organization of the study.
Part II – Development is the main and covers the following aspects:
Chapter 1: Understanding cross-cultural communication;
Chapter 2: Non-Verbal communication in the light of cross-cultural
communication;
Chapter 3: Verbal communication in the light of cross-cultural
communication
Part III- Conclusion is the summary of the study, and the suggestions for
further research.
3
DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING CROSS – CULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
1.1. Definition of culture
1.1.1. Language
Language is considered to be a mean of human communication formed
from such linguistic units as morphemes, words, sentences. Supporting
that point of view, Crystal (1992: 212) states, language is “the systematic,
conventional use of sounds, signs, or written symbols in a human society
for communication and self-expression”. Therefore, people use language
to communicate, to pass their achievements from generation to
generation, language is a tool by which people are most frequently
judged, and through which they may make or lose friends. It is "the
vehicle par-excellence of social solidarity, of social ranking, of
professional advancement and of business" (M. Bygate, 1987: 3).
1.1.2. Culture
Unlike language, culture does not contain fixed rules. It is different from
society to society and even from individual to individual. What is right in
one culture may not be right in another culture.
Culture, in Moore’s words (1985:4), is “the whole of the knowledge,
ideas and habits of society that are transmitted from one generation to the
next.” It is more powerful than instinct. Apte (1994), writing in the ten
volume Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistic, propose the following
definition: “Culture is a fuzzy set of attitudes, beliefs, behavioral
conventions, and basic assumptions and values that are shared by a group
of people, and that influence each member’s behavior and his/her
interpretations of the ‘meaning’ of the other people’s behavior.” Moore
(1985:4) also claims the following components of culture, which are
4
“beliefs, values, norms, roles, role conflict, and status.” R.A.Hudson
(1982:81) regards culture as “the kind of knowledge” involving cultural
knowledge, shared-non-cultural knowledge, and non-shared-knowledge
“which we learn from other people, either by direct instruction or by
watching their behavior.” In other words, culture is the set of values and
ways of acting that mark a particular society.
Culture, as stated by Nguyen Quang (1998: 3), is “a share background
(for example, national, ethnic, religious) resulting from a common
language and communication style, custom, beliefs, attitudes, and values.
Culture in this text does not refer to art, music, literature, food, clothing
styles, and so on. It refers to the informal and often hidden patterns of
human interactions, expressions, and viewpoints that people in one
culture share. The hidden nature of culture has been compared to an
iceberg, most of which is hidden underwater! Like the iceberg most of the
influence of culture on an individual cannot be seen. The part of culture
that is exposed is not always that which creates cross-cultural difficulties;
the hidden aspects of culture have significant effects on behavior and on
interactions with others”. No culture is good or bad, cultures are equal but
different. There is a famous quote of Mahatma Gandhi that goes “no
culture can live if it attempts to be exclusive.” Culture does not belong to
any single person but to all people. Nguyen Quang in his “Lectures-notes
on cross-cultural communication” (2004: 31) also describes culture as “a
complex whole of tangible and intangle expressions that are created and
adapted by a society or a social group as well as that ways it functions
and reacts in given situations.”
What can be seen from these points of view is that the language of a
community is a part or a manifestation of its culture as Goodenogh’s
word “the relationship of language to culture is that of part to whole.”
Language and communication modality (verbal, gesture, written) are
5
examples of elements that form and shape a culture. Kramch-Troike
(1998:3) clarifies the corelation between language and culture by
emphasizing three functions of language related to culture. They are
“expressing cultural reality, embodying cultural reality and symbolizing
cultural reality”. What we can see that culture and language are closely
interrelated and interwoven. R.A.Hudson (1982: 81) argues“As for the
relation between language and culture, most of language is contained
within culture”. Obviousely, the close relationship between language and
culture plays a very important part in communication. It is impossible to
separate language from culture when communicating.
1.1.3. The components of culture
According to Stephen Moore (1985:4), the components of culture can be
defined as the followings:
Belief: These are general, vague opinions held about the world and about
the nature of society.
Values: These are vague beliefs about what is right and correct in the
world.
Norms: These are socially expected patterns of behavior.
Roles: Social roles are patterns of behavior expected of certain people
according to the occupation or position they hold in society.
Role conflict: These are innumerable social roles: father, mother, child,
and shopkeeper. All of us occupy a number of roles, which are generally
complementary, but sometimes they may conflict.
Status: this refers to the position of a person or social role in society
according to the amount of prestige received from others.
According to Nguyen Quang (1998:4), the iceburg of culture includes
visible part of culture and invisible part of culture:
+ Visible part of culture: Appearance, food, language, etc.
6
+ Invisible part of culture: values, beliefs, perceptions, communication
styles.
Figure 1: Levine and adalman’s iceburg of culture(Nguyen Quang, 1998)
1.2. Definitions of Communication
According to Nguyen Quang (1998: 3), communication is the process of
sharing meaning through verbal and nonverbal behavior.
“Communication, then, is vital to our lives. To live is to communicate”
(Hybels, 1992:5).
Communication is “a symbolic process in which people create shared
meanings” (Lustig, 1996:29). “Human communication is a conscious or
unconscious, intentional, or unintentional process in which feelings and
ideas are expressed in verbal and non verbal messages”.( Berko,1989:4)
“Communication is any process in which people share information, ideas,
and feelings. That process involves not only the spoken and written word,
but also body language, personal mannerism and style” (Hybels, 1992:5).
7
- Classification of Communication can be seen in Nguyen Quang chart as
below:
COM M UNICATION
 Verbal communication
 Intralanguage
Nonverbal communication
 Paralanguage

- Vocabulary

- Vocal characteristics

- Grammatical rules

+ Pitch

- Phonetic & phonological
rules

+ Vocal quality

- Types of vocal flow

- Rules of language use and
interaction skills

- Vocal interferences

- Silence/ pauses

-……

- ….
 Extralanguage
+ Volumn + Rate
 Body language
 Object language
( Action of language/Kinesics)

 Environmental
language
(Artifacts)

- Eye contact - Facial expression

- Clothing

- Physical characteristics

- Jewellery

- Gestures - Postures


- Body movements

- Touch/ Haptics/ Tactile

- Setting - Conversational
distance
- Make- up

- Time/ Chronemics

- Gifts

- Lighting system

- …..

- Colour - Heat
Figure 2: Classification of Communication (Nguyen Quang,1998)
1.3. Communication competence (CC)
“CC is defined as the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a
language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to
know when and where to use these sentences and to whom.” (Longman
dictionary of Applied linguistic, 1985:49)
Together with these ideas, Wardhaugh (1989:213) suggests: “When we
teach a language like English to speakers who already know another
language, we must aware that we have to teach more than new sounds,
words, and grammatical structures, etc”.
8
CC involves the understanding of cultural, social knowledge and other
skills of interaction. CC includes:
- “Knowledge of grammar and vocabulary of the language.
- Knowledge of rules of speaking (e.g: knowing how to begin and end
conversation, knowing what topics may be talked about in different types
of speech events, knowing address forms should be used with different
people and in different situations).
- Knowing how to use and respond to different types of speech acts, such
as requests, apologizes, thanks, and invitations.
- Knowing how to use English appropriately”
(J. Richards et al- 1985:49)
In J.Richards’ opinion, he also adds: “When someone wishes to
communicate with others, they must recognize the social setting, their
relationship to the other person, and the types of language can be used for
a particular occasion. They must also be able to interpret written or
spoken sentences within the total context in which they are
used”(J.Richard, 49). CC is essential in cross-cultural communication. It
includes notion of language, culture, and thought.
1.4. Definitions of cross-cultural communication
According to Nguyen Quang (1998:3): “Communication (verbal or
nonverbal) between people from different cultures; communication that is
influenced and cultural values, attitudes and behavior: the influence of
culture on people’ reactions and responses to each other.”
Cross-cultural communication can be defined as “an awareness that
specific cultural and/or social and/or linguistic and/or economic and/or
historical and/or gender-based differences matter in cross-cultural
interaction, demonstrated through appropriately shaping one’s discourse
with individuals of different backgrounds from one’s own”
(www.global-workforce.globalization.org).
9
“The phrase cross-cultural communication describes the ability to
successfully form, foster, and improve relationships with members of a
culture different from one's own. It is based on knowledge of many
factors, such as the other culture's values, perceptions, manners, social
structure, and decision-making practices, and an understanding of how
members of the group communicate--verbally, non-verbally, in person, in
writing, and in various business and social contexts, to name but a few.
Like speaking a foreign language or riding a bicycle, cross-cultural
communication involves a skill component that may best be learned and
mastered through instruction and practice: simply reading about it is not
enough”(www.ewbs.com).
Or cross-cultural communication can be understood in a more simple
way:
“Cross-cultural
communication (also
frequently
referred
to
as intercultural communication, which is also used in a different sense,
though) is a field of study that looks at how people from
differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different
ways among themselves, and how they endeavour to communicate across
cultures” (en.wikipedia.org).
1.5. Culture shock and how to avoid culture shock?
1.5.1. Culture shock? Why culture shock?
Culture shock or communication breakdown may happen when a person
learns a second language in a second culture or s/he moves to live in
another cultural environment. Culture shock in H.Douglas Brown’s
opinion, refers “to a phenomena ranging from mild irritability to deep
psychological panic and crisis” when entering a new culture. And George
M.Foster (1962:87) uses more terms to describe culture shock:
“Culture- shock is a mental illness, and as it is true of much mental
illness, the victim usually does not know he is affected. He finds that he is
10
irritable, depressed, and probably annoyed by the lack of attention shown
him.”
Culture shock in H.Douglas Brown’s opinion, refers “to a phenomena
ranging from mild irritability to deep psychological panic and crisis”
when entering a new culture. Culture shock results from different values,
perceptions, norms that lead to the different inference as well as
misinterpretation in both verbal and non-verbal communication.
However, how about culture shock happening between native and nonnative speakers of a language, and of Vietnamese in particular, because of
unawareness of cultural differences. “Communication breakdown”
between them is unavoidable. Culture shock results from different values,
perceptions, norms that lead to the different inference as well as
misinterpretation in both verbal and non-verbal communication. For
example in the way of using address forms:
Vietnamese students often call: “teacher, blah, blah, blah”. But the
word “teacher” is just a job, and there is more to that person than
just his/her job. So it sounds impolite, and the teacher may tell the
student “my name is not Teacher, you can call me Mrs. Mary…”
Moreover, in the Vietnamese culture, when asking such questions as “Are
you married?”, “how old are you?”, “How much do you earn a month?”
people simply want to show their concern to the others, to make the
distance between interactants closer and friendlier; thus, to enhance
solidarity. In contrast, in English, people do not always do so. Those
questions can be considered too acquisitive, since they respect
interactant’s privacy. So concerning questions about other’s age, earning,
marital status etc are not appropriate in the English initial conversation.
Or in the other word, unawareness of different roles the speaker and
hearer might play namely age, social distance, work power, and
11
relationship, marital status, education as well. Using wrong language in
wrong circumstances can cause culture shock.
1.5.2. Main factors creating culture shock
Unawareness of cross-cultural differences, i.e. different cultures may
have difference values, perceptions, cultural thought patterns, belief, etc.
Unawareness of different roles the speaker and hearer might play namely
age, social distance, work power, and relationship, marital status,
education as well. Moreover, it should be noted that the length of time
knowing each other can determine the language used in communication.
Using wrong language in wrong circumstances can cause culture shock.
1.5.3. How culture - shock: From honey moon to Culture shock to
integration
H.Douglas Brown (1986:33) suggests the term “acculturation” which is
defined as the process of becoming adapted to a new culture. It is
common knowledge that entering a new culture for a length of time
involves a period and in a number of stages. Levin and Adelman in their
book Beyond Language: Intercultural Communication for English as a
Second Language (1982) present a W-shaped diagram that illustrates
periods of adjustment in a second culture:
12
Figure 3: W-shaped diagram of culture shock (Nguyen Quang,1998b)
“Honey moon stage: When you first arrive in a new culture, differences
are intriguing and you may feel excited, stimulated and curious. At this
stage you are still protected by the close memory of your home culture.
This is a period of excitement, fascination, bewilderment, of discovery
and inquisitiveness, curiosity and amazement.
Culture-shock: A little later, differences create an impact and you may
feel confused, isolated or inadequate as cultural differences intrude and
familiar supports (eg family or friends) are not immediately available.
Those initially exciting cultural differences may now cause you to feel
insecure or confused, as you struggle to understand the rules of the new
culture you find yourself in. At this stage, the reality of day-to-day living
begins to sink-in. The individual is totally immersed in new sets of
problems. You are confronted by the daily problems of living in a
different culture and trying to communicate in a foreign language. You
became mentally tired from all the effort involved in understanding and
copying.
13
Initial adjustment: You may consciously or unconsciously also be
assessing your own cultural values and trying to make sense of them in
your new cultural context. You are reconnecting with what you value
about yourself and your own culture. You are starting to feel less alien
and more at home.
Mental isolation: After being away from your family, friends, and
familiar environment, you begin to feel lonely. You miss the music, the
native places of attraction, or even your spouse, and you long for news
from home. You begin to suffer from nostalgia, especially if the social
status you had in your original culture is not realized in the new country.
Even though you are able to live in the new culture without any problem,
you still feel inadequate and have lost self-confidence.
Acceptance and integration or abandonment: You have accepted the
habits, customs, foods and behaviors of the people in this new culture”
(Levine, D.et al – cited from Nguyen Quang – 1998b)
1.5.4. How to cope with culture shock?
B.Tomalin and Stempleski suggested on the following encompassed
qualities, which would be useful in cross-cultural interaction:
+ Awareness of one’s own culturally induced behavior.
+ Awareness of the culturally induced behavior of others.
+ Ablity to explain one’s cultural standpoint.
In order to avoid culture shock or communication breakdown, awareness
of cross-culture differences as well as of our own culture should be
promoted and enhanced. This does not mean our culture identities are lost
but more cultural influences are regconized within ourselves and others.
14
1.6. Practice
Practice 1: In My Culture It’s Normal
In my country it is normal/polite/impolite/rude/strange:
1. To shake hands when we meet someone for the first time.
2. To kiss on both cheeks when we greet or say goodbye to a friend
3. To take someone out to dinner (pay for dinner) for his birthday or
when he gets a promotion
4. To be a little late to meet friends
5. To be a little minutes late to work or to business meetings
6. To spit in public
7. To call most people by their first names
8. To ask people their ethnicity or nationality when you meet them for
the first time
9. To sing in public
10. For women in the family to make important decisions like which
school to send children to, how to spend money, etc…
11. For men to cook, clean or do other household work
12. To interrupt people when talking
13. To give gifts to teachers, doctors, government officials, bosses for
students to wear suits or dresses or formal clothing
14. To invite people to your home
15. To ask guests to leave when it gets late or if you are busy
16. To serve guests only drinks and chips or small snacks
17. To disagree with older people or people who are more powerful
than you
18. To give up your seat for older people or women
19. To get promoted to a much higher position than your family or
friends.
15
Practice 2. Culture Shock: Timed Skimming Exercise
(http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/490/wchild/wchild21.htm)
1. When does culture shock
Part 5: Culture Shock
You have read about Romulus and Remus
whose culture shock came when they went
back to the world of human beings after
being raised by a wolf. Tarzan's culture
shock came when he discovered that he
was not a "white ape" but a human being.
happen?
A. when you reach
your teens
B. when you move to a
big city
C. when you meet
foreign people for
Emily Carr preferred the culture of the First
Nations people and the life she led on her
explorations to the dresses and polite
conversations of her own culture. You now
know that First Nations culture did not
include school or even business activity,
people spent most of their time in nature or
around the fire of their home talking, telling
stories and making the things they needed
to
survive.
Psychologists tell us that there are four
basic stages that human beings pass
through when they enter and live in a new
culture. This process, which helps us to
deal with culture shock, is the way our
brain and our personality reacts to the
strange new things we encounter when we
move from one culture to another. If our
16
the first time
D. when you go to live
in a foreign culture
2. How do you feel during
the first stage of culture
shock?
A.
lonely and
depressed
B.
bored and
homesick
C.
happy and excited
D.
angry and
frustrated
3. How do you feel during
the second stage?
A.
homesick and
afraid
B.
interested and
culture involves bowing when we greet
someone, we may feel very uncomfortable
amused
C.
in a culture that does not involve bowing. If
the language we use when talking to
positive
D.
someone in our own culture is influenced
by levels of formality based on the other
person's age and status, it may be difficult
stressed, but
you have no
particular feelings
4. How could the third stage
be described?
for us to feel comfortable communicating
A.
adjustment
with
culture.
B.
rejection
Culture begins with the "honeymoon
C.
enthusiasm
stage". This is the period of time when we
D.
anger
people
in
the
new
first arrive in which everything about the
5. How do you feel during
new culture is strange and exciting. We
the fourth stage of culture
may be suffering from "jet lag" but we are
shock?
thrilled to be in the new environment,
A.
tense, but positive
seeing new sights, hearing new sounds and
B.
relaxed
language, eating new kinds of food. This
C.
negative and
honeymoon stage can last for quite a long
time because we feel we are involved in
some
kind
of
great
adventure.
stressed
D.
afraid
6. Why might reverse culture
Unfortunately, the second stage of culture
shock be a problem?
shock can be more difficult. After we have
A. It hardly ever
settled down into our new life, working or
studying, buying groceries, doing laundry,
or living with a home-stay family, we can
become very tired and begin to miss our
homeland
and
our
family,
girlfriend/boyfriend, pets. All the little
17
happens.
B. It is extremely
stressful.
C. Most people do not
expect it.
D. It only happens to
problems that everybody in life has seem to
young people.
be much bigger and more disturbing when
you face them in a foreign culture. This
period of cultural adjustment can be very
difficult and lead to the new arrival
rejecting or pulling away from the new
culture. This "rejection stage" can be quite
dangerous because the visitor may develop
unhealthy habits (smoking and drinking too
much, being too concerned over food or
contact with people from the new culture).
This can, unfortunately lead to the person
getting sick or developing skin infections or
rashes which then makes the person feel
even more scared and confused and
helpless. This stage is considered a crisis in
the process of cultural adjustment and
many people choose to go back to their
homeland or spend all their time with
people from their own culture speaking
their
native
language.
The third stage of culture shock is called
the "adjustment stage". This is when you
begin to realize that things are not so bad in
the host culture. Your sense of humour
usually becomes stronger and you realize
that you are becoming stronger by learning
to take care of yourself in the new place.
4. The four basic stages of
culture shock are:
a. honeymoon,
rehearsal,
memorization,
return
b. honeymoon,
rejection,
adjustment, at ease
at last
c. honeymoon,
rejection, reverse, at
ease at last
d. honeymoon,
rehearsal, rejection,
at ease at last
5. Why would people in the
second stage of culture
shock choose to spend all
their time with people
from their homeland?
a. They are afraid to
risk being
uncomfortable with
strangers and it is
easier to stay with
people from their
18
Things are still difficult, but you are now a
survivor!
own culture.
b. They are afraid of
The fourth stage can be called "at ease at
skin diseases and
last". Now you feel quite comfortable in
want to hide from
your new surroundings. You can cope with
contact with
most problems that occur. You may still
foreigners.
have problems with the language, but you
c. They feel that they
know you are strong enough to deal with
can learn the new
them. If you meet someone from your
language by
country who has just arrived, you can be
themselves and
the expert on life in the new culture and
don't need contact
help them to deal with their culture shock.
with people from
There is a fifth stage of culture shock which
the new culture.
many people don't know about. This is
called
"reverse
culture
shock".
Surprisingly, this occurs when you go back
to your native culture and find that you
have changed and that things there have
changed while you have been away. Now
you feel a little uncomfortable back home.
Life is a struggle!
19
d. They are only
interested in going
home.
CHAPTER 2: CULTURE IMPACTS ON NON – VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
2.1. Understanding non-verbal communication
Lustig
(1996:187-188)
defines
“nonverbal
communication
is
a
multichanneled process that is usually performed simultaneously; it
typically involves a subtle set of nonlinguistic behaviors that are often
enacted subconsciously. Nonverbal behaviors can become part of the
communication process when someone intentionally tries to convey a
message or when someone attributes meaning to the nonverbal behavior
of another, whether or not the person intend to communicate a particular
meaning”.
Hybel (1992, 104) states “without saying a word you could be
communicating by your clothing, your facial expressions, your posture, or
any other number of nonverbal signals”.
According to Nguyen Quang (2004, 226), nonverbal communication
refers to “all the components of the message that, when taken together,
constitute the communication which is not verbally coded but both
vocally and nonvocally channeled. Nonverbal communication is
composed of paralinguistic factors (nonverbal-vocal channel), such as
rate, volume, etc., and extralinguistic factors (nonverbal-nonvocal
channel), such as body language (gestures, postures, facial expression,
etc), object language, environment language”.
20
2.2. The importance of nonverbal communication
Hybels (1992, 104) states “nonverbal communication is extremely
important in human interaction”.
Hall (cited in Nguyen Quang, 2004) claims that 60 percent of all
communication is nonverbal.
Mehrabian has determined from his research that as much as 93 percent
of communication is nonverbal (Hybels, 1992:104)
Birdwhistell estimates that the average American speaks for only ten to
eleven minutes a day, and that more than 65 percent of the social meaning
of a typical two-person exchange is carried by nonverbal cues (Valdes,
1992:65).
21
2.3. Types of nonverbal communication
Peace (1984:7) claims “The fascinating thing is that human animal is
rarely aware of his postures, movements and gestures that can tell one
story while his voice may be telling another”.
2.3.1. Gestures
Gestures, which have been called “silent language”, is a form of
nonverbal communication made with part of body or the body as a whole,
and used instead or in combination with verbal communication (Roger
E.Axtell, 1998). Gestures vary from culture to culture. People from
different cultures tend to use and read gestures in a different way.
2.3.1.a. Facial expressions
As stated by Nguyen Quang (1996:64): “Our faces reveal emotions and
attitudes, but we should not attempt to “read” people from aother culture
as we would “read” someone from our own culture”.
Facial expressions are also among the most universal forms of body
language. The expressions used to convey fear, anger, sadness, and
happiness are similar throughout the world. Researcher Paul Ekman has
22
found support for the universality of a variety of facial expressions tied to
particular emotions including joy, anger, fear, surprise, and sadness.
Sadness
Happiness
Anger
Confusion
Surprise
Excitement
Disgust
Desire
Fear
Contempt
2.3.1.b. Eye contact:
The eyes are sometimes called the "windows to the soul" because they
can reveal so much about what a person is thinking or feeling.
Eye-gaze: “When a person looks directly into your eyes when having a
conversion, it indicates that they are interested and paying attention.
23
However, prolonged eye contact can feel threatening. On the other hand,
breaking eye contact and frequently looking away may indicate that the
person is distracted, uncomfortable, or trying to conceal his or her real
feelings”.
(www.capitaleap.org/body-language-what-were-really-saying)
Blinking: “Blinking is natural, but you should also pay attention to
whether a person is blinking too much or too little. People often blink
more rapidly when they are feeling distressed or uncomfortable.
Infrequent blinking may indicate that a person is intentionally trying to
control his or her eye movements. For example, a poker player might
blink less frequently because he is purposely trying to appear unexcited
about the hand he was dealt”.
24

Pupil-size: “One of the most subtle cues that eyes provide is through the
size of the pupils. While light levels in the environment control pupil
dilation, sometimes emotions can also cause small changes in pupil size.
For example, you may have heard the phase "bedroom eyes" used to
describe the look someone gives when they are attracted to another
person”.
(www.capitaleap.org/body-language-what-were-really-saying)
25
2.3.1.c. The mouth:
The mouth and lips can convey a great deal of nonverbal information.
Pursed lips: Pursed lips might be an indicator of distaste, disapproval, or
distrust
Lip biting: People sometimes bite their lips when they are worried,
anxious, or stressed.
Covering the mouth: When people want to hide an emotional reaction,
they might cover their mouths in order to avoid displaying a smile or
smirk.
26
Turned up or down: Slight changes in the mouth can also be subtle
indicators of what a person is feeling. When the mouth is slightly turned
up, it might mean that the person is feeling happy or optimistic. On the
other hand, a slightly downturned mouth can be an indicator of sadness,
disapproval, or even an outright grimace.
2.3.1.d. Hand gestures:
Hand gestures in different cultures may imply different meanings. It is
really important to understand the meaning of different gestures when
you are about to travel to other countries, or when you learn another
language as well. “Many times we tend to use our hands to explain our
needs and thoughts. The same hand gesture may mean something quite
nasty and offensive to a person from a different cultural background.
Hand gestures are a very important part of the body language gestures.
Hand gestures are a way of communicating with others and conveying
27
your feelings. These gestures are most helpful when one is speaking to
someone with no language in common. The meanings of hand gestures in
different cultures may translate into different things. Before you
communicate with people in different cultures, you need to understand
the meaning of gestures. Those considered as a good gestures in one
country may be termed as an offensive gesture in some countries.
Thumb up: The thumb up sign in most American
and European cultures meaning things are going
according to your plans or something you approve
of. However, the going good sign translates into a
rude and offensive gesture in Islamic and Asian
countries. In Australia, it means OK, but if you
move it up and down, it is considered as a grave
insult.
Thumb down: The thums down sign obviously
means the opposite of a thumbs up sign. It is an
indicate of something that is bad or something
that you do not approve of. It also indicates that
something or someone has failed. The thumbs
down sign is not used as often as the thumbs up
sign. This is a rude hand gesture and an arrogant
way to indicate failure”.
(www.buzzle.com/articles/hand-gestures-in-different-cultures.html)
Hand shaking: According to Nguyen Quang (1999:22), “when Anglicist
shake hands, they usually only shake hands for a seconds. When shaking
hands, they shake hands firmly not loosely. “He shakes hand like a dead
fish” refers to someone whose handshake is not firm enough. In the
American culture, a weak handshake is a sign of a weak character. In
28
Vietnam, people shake hands differently. They may take the other’s hand
a bit loosely and may tightly”
2.3.2. Postures
There is a tendency to see gestures as dynamic and postures as static.
Postures, the way we hold ourselves, give important information.
Interested people always pay attention and lean forward, folding arms
across one’s chest is protective and will give the impression of a closed,
guarded and defensive character.
As can be found in www.assertbh.org.uk/content/uploads/2015/06/BodyLanguage, posture can tell a lot about how a person might be feeling:
29
2.3.2.a. Open postures:
Open postures involve keeping the trunk of the body open and exposed.
This type of posture indicates friendliness, openness, and willingness.
2.3.2.b. Closed postures:
Closed postured involve keeping the obscured or hidden often by
hunching forward and keeping the arms and legs crossed. This type of
posture can be an indicator of hostility, unfriendliness, and anxiety.
2.3.2.c.The arms and legs:
The arms and legs can also be useful in conveying nonverbal information.
Crossing the arms can indicate defensiveness. Crossing legs away from
another person may indicate dislike or discomfort with that individual.
30
Other subtle signals such as expanding the arms widely may be an
attempt to seem larger or more commanding, while keeping the arms
close to the body may be an effort to minimize oneself or withdraw from
attention.
When you are evaluating body language, pay attention to some of the
following signals that the arms and legs may convey:
Crossed arms might indicate that a person feels defensive, self-protective,
or closed-off.
Standing with hands placed on the hips can be an indication that a person
is ready and in control, or it can also possibly be a sign of aggressiveness.
Clasping the hands behind the back might indicate that a person is feeling
bored, anxious, or even angry.
Rapidly tapping fingers or fidgeting can be a sign that a person is bored,
impatient, or frustrated.
Crossed legs can indicate that a person is feeling closed off or in need of
privacy.
2.4. Cross-cultural nonverbal communication and culture shock
Communication is culture-bound. The way we communicate emanates
from
our
culture.
Nonverbal
communication,
as
a
form
of
communication, is culturally determined. Most from of nonverbal
31
communication can be interpreted only within the framework of the
culture in which they occur. The rules and norms that govern most
nonverbal communication behaviors are culture-specific.
Birdwhistell suggests, “a smile in one society portrays friendliness, in
another embarrassment, and in still another may a warning that unless
tension is reduced, hostility and attack will follow” (cited in Lustig,
1996:194).
“In cross-cultural communication, misunderstandings often occur in the
interpretations of nonverbal behaviors because different rules create very
different meanings about the appropriateness and effectiveness of
particular interaction sequences” (Lustig/ Koster, 2006, 214).
An example for hand gestures in different culture with different meaning:
32
CHAPTER 3: CULTURE IMPACTS ON VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
3.1. Addressing forms in Vietnamese language and culture
33
3.1.1. Circular Relationship
The kinship terms used as addressing form can make a new relationship
that is call “Circular Relationship”. This relationship can be shown in
figure below in comparision with I - YOU in English:
Figure 4: Circular Relationship
This one is used popularly in the communication among Vietnamese
people in family and in society to express the inequality, respect and
deference, and solidarity.
3.1.2. Horizontal Relationship- Type 1
However, Nguyen Quang (1992:50) noted that: “In Vietnamese language
and culture, apart from the circular relation, there are other addressing
forms which are not the kinship terms. They are used to express the
equality in power/ age. The interlocutors use these address forms are the
ones who have power equals and want to show the solidarity. Most of
34
them are young people, close friends, or those who have solidarity. Just
like the using of multiple names in English, the using horizontal
relationship-type 1 in Vietnamese seems to be complicated and difficult
to second-language learners”.
This relationship is called “Horizontal Relationship- Type 1”
For example:
1. Ai đi để ai thương ai nhớ
Ai về cho ai hết sầu mong
2. Mình về mình có nhớ ta
Mười lăm năm ấy thiết tha mặn nồng
Mình về mình có nhớ không
Nhìn cây nhớ núi nhìn sông nhớ nguồn
(Cited in Nguyen Quang (1999:165-166)
These addressing forms are interchangeable addressing. This is a unique
and interesting phenomenon.
3.1.3. Horizontal Relationship- Type 2
According to Nguyen Quang (1999:167) there is another relationship
which is called “Horizontal Relationship- Type II”. This is considered
35
as the use of V-form in Europe because this one expresses the equality,
formality, honorific, modesty, and insolidarity.
Figure 5: Horizontal Relationship- Type 2. Nguyen Quang (1999:165)
3.1.4. Dynamic Relationships
According to Nguyen Quang (1999:169), in Vietnamese culture and
society, if there is a conflict between the age and the social position, there
will be a compromise in the way of choosing the addressing forms. It is
different to that in American culture and society where the social position
plays a more important role in using the addressing forms. The
compromise in choosing addressing forms can be seen in the folowing
figure:
36
The addressing forms “TÔI_ CHỨC DANH” can create the new
relationship which is called “Dynamic Relationships”.
In Vietnamese culture, after a period of time of communicating the pair “
TÔI_ CHỨC DANH” can be change into “Cháu/Em- CHỨC DANH” to
express the self-abasement, solidarity or in the other hand to keep the
social-power of the interlocutors. The following figure shows the
“Dynamic relationship type-I” in which the dynamic element is the first
personal pronounce “TÔI”, the second pronounce can be unchanged or
changed to suit with the first one.
Figure 6: Dynamic relationship type-I
For example:
- Xin thủ trưởng cho tôi hai ngày để hoàn thành báo cáo này.
- Xin thủ trưởng cho em hai ngày để hoàn thành báo cáo này
(showing the respect and the solidarity)
- Cô/chị đánh cho tôi bản báo cáo này nhé.
- Em/cháu đánh cho anh/chú bản báo cáo này nhé (showing
the respect and the solidarity)
Nguyen Quang (1999:171)
37
3.1.5. The dynamic relationship-type II
In Vietnamese language and culture, there is one more relationship in
which the first personal ponounce “TÔI” is constant and the second one is
changed. In this relationship the social position of the addressee (waiter/
waitress/ taxi driver, etc.) is often lower than the addresser. It is not polite
to adopt the form of address for them like waiter/ waitress/…(with their
occupation)
Eg: Này, cô hầu bàn, cho tôi hai nâu nhé. (not polite)
In this case, the second personal pronounce will be changed to keep the
formality but still express the respect, tact, and solidarity. This
relationship is called “the dynamic relationship-type II” (Nguyen
Quang, 1999:174).
Eg: Này, em/ cháu ơi, cho tôi hai nâu nhé.
By conducting an interview, Nguyen Quang (1999:174) pointed “the
dynamic relationship-type II” in the figure below:
Figure 7: Dynamic relationship type-II
Or the “circular relationship” can be used by Vietnamese people when
an addressee is female to show the familiarity/ solidarity.
Eg: Này, em/ cháu ơi, cho anh/chú/ bác hai nâu nhé.
Nguyen Quang (1999:173)
38
This is the variant of “the dynamic relationship-type II”
Figure 8:Dynamic relationship type-II cited in Nguyen Quang (1999:175)
3.1.6.The variant of circular relationship.
In Vietnamese language and culture, there is one kind of dynamic
relationship that is considered as an interesting phenomenon and
expresses the family-orientation of Vietnamese people. That is
“addressing on the child’s behalf”. This form of address shows the
solidarity, the modesty, and the familiality. Originally it was used among
people in family, then among the neighbours, and finally it is used largely
in the solidarity relatinship and social communication. But this kind of
addressing form is normally used in the rural more than in the urban. This
is also the variant of circular relationship. As some examples written in
Nguyen Quang (1999:175):
Eg: - Bác cho em vay dăm cân gạo.
- Chú mà giúp chị thì chẳng đời nào chị quên ơn chú.
39
Figure 9: Variant of circular relationship.
3.2. Addressing forms in English - American language and culture
“It is said that the form of address in English-American language and
culture is quite simple. With I-YOU, people can communicate with each
other without concerning about their age, gender, social positions,
relationship, attitude, emotion. In fact, it is not simple like being thought.
In English-American language there are many different addressing forms
used to express the attitude, the emmotion of the interlocutors”.
3.2.1. Addressing forms in English - American
Basically, addressing forms in English-American language and culture
can be seen as following:
I –YOU : neutral
Title alone-T: eg: Professor / Dr./ Mr./Miss
Title with last name-TLN: Professor Browning/ Mr.Clinton
40
Last name alone-LN: Micheal Nixon, Mary King
First name- FN: Micheal Nixon, Mary King including diminutive eg.
Beck for Rebecca
Multiple names – MNs: According to Brown&Ford (1964:238) MNs
means when having a talk we may use TLN or FN or LN or nick name to
address the hearers; this phenomenon also exists in Vietnamese language
and culture and is often used among people having very close relationship
(solidarity).
However, in English-American language and culture, there are two main
addressing forms usually used. Those are: TLN and FN. According to
Brown and Ford (1964), Ervin-Trpp (1972), Wardhaugh (1986):
FN is identical to “T” form (informal) used when speakers want to
express the solidarity semantic.
LN is identical to “V” form (formal) when speakers want to express the
power semantic or the formality.
There are 3 groups of exchange these addressing forms:
Mutual exchange of FN: to express the solidarity, the closeness. The
young Americans tendentially use this type of addressing forms. But in
Vietnamese culture, it is able to cause culture-shock when conversing,
especially with the old people or with the ones who have higher position/
more power. According to Fasold, “a younger person or the one with
lower social position can call the older one or the one with higher
position with FN when there is a dispensation.
Mutual exchange of TLN: to express the equality and to keep the
distance. It is the polite way of communication in English-American
culture.
Nonreciprocal exchange of TLN and FN to express the inequality in
power. According to Brown and Gilman (1962), the power of the parents
prevents their children from addressing them or the ones who are older
41
than them the in informal way. This is the root of using the TLN/FN to
address the social-powerful people because they are the parent figures.
According to Nguyen Quang (2000:182), there are two aspects
influencing on addressing forms: the power and the age.
According to Fasold (1990:30), traditionally women are addressed more
formally possibly due to gentlemen. That is called gender aspect also
influencing on the addressing forms.
3.2.2. Terms of affection
Wolfson and Manes (1979) observed that: “in American society many
men call/ address the women they meet at the first time with the terms of
affection such as Dear, Honey, Sweetie/Sweety, etc. There are some
reasons:
- They are older.
- They have higher position or more social power.
- They are conversing in the intimate environment.
- Their habit. But the well-cultured people rarely use this terms of
affection at the first meeting.
According to Brown and Ford (1964), after 5 minute conversation the
Americans can change from TLN to FN. According to Fasold (1990:25),
the Americans also use addressing forms to express their attitude. When
getting angry/ mad or complaining, they change from FN to TLN.
3.2.3. Addressing form avoidance –AFA
It is considered as uncultured/ uneducated/ill-bred in Vietnamese culture.
It is partially acceptable among the people who are age-equals and
power-equals.
However, in English-American culture it is much different. The English
and Americans use AFA when they do not know how to address the
communicative subject. Eg: Mr., Miss, Ms.,
42
Doctor+ 0 - Doctor (title alone)
Mr+ 0  0 (AFA)
3.3. Objectiveness and Subjectiveness
3.3.1. Definition of objectiveness and subjective
Objectiveness is a statement that is completely unbiased. It is not touched
by the speaker’s previous experiences or tastes. It is verifiable by looking
up facts or performing mathematical calculations.
Subjectiveness is a statement that has been colored by the character of the
speaker or writer. It has a basis in reality, but reflects the perspective
through with the speaker views reality. It cannot be verified using
concrete facts and figures.
The difference between these two important ideas is the difference
between fact and opinion. Facts are objective and provably true; however,
if no clear facts exist about a topic, then a series of balanced
opinions needs to be produced to allow the reader to make up his or her
mind; opinions are subjective ideas held by individuals and so are always
biased.
(http://www.differencebetween.net/language/difference-betweenobjective-and-subjective).
3.3.2. Objectiveness and Subjectiveness in defining the space
According to Nguyen Quang (1999:21), Vietnamese people seem to be
more subjective, while English-American ones are more objective.
Vietnamese people consider them as the subject so they always define the
position of “ego” in order to use the suitable preposition. While the
Anglitcist just concerns about the direction of “ego” more than its
position.
43
For example:
Anglicist
Vietnamese
When the ego move to externality, If the subject is on the 2nd floor, the
for example the garden:
destination is the garden:
I am going to the garden- Tôi đi tới - Tôi đi xuống vườn
vườn
If the subject is in the basement, the
destination is the garden:
- Tôi đi lên vườn
If the subject indoor, the destination
is the garden:
- Tôi đi ra vườn
The subjectiveness and objectiveness in defining “ego” can be seen
clearly when there are two objects and “ego”. For example, the two
objects are “the bird” and “the sky”.
Anglicist
Vietnamese
- The bird is flying in the sky
Con chim đang bay ở trên trời
- Con chim đang bay ở trong trời. The bird is flying above/on the sky.
Ego excluded in Object- Oject Ego
interrelation
included
in
Object-Object
interrelation because Vietnamese people
care about their position with the bird
rather than the position of the bird and the
sky.
3.3.3. Subjective and objective in pragmatics
According to Nguyen Quang (1999:37), the subjectiveness and the
objectiveness in Vietnamese and Anglicist language and culture can be
expressed in the essence of the statements. There are two main
statements: The descriptive statements and the evaluative statements.
44
The descriptive statements are objective:
For example:
- She is 1.45 metre height and weighs 60kg.
- Cô ấy cao một mét bốn năm và nặng 60 cân.
The evaluative statements are subjective because the speakers express
their feeling, their thought, their experience, their opinion when they
adjust things/objects/events in life.
For example:
- She is short and fat as a pig.
- Cô ấy béo ú và lùn tịt.
(Nguyen Quang, 1991)
3.4. Directness and indirectness
“As defined in speech-act theory, direct acts are those where surface form
matches interactional function, as 'Be quiet!' used as a command, versus
an indirect 'It's getting noisy here' or 'I can't hear myself think,' but other
units of communication must also be considered” (Saville-Trike:1986).
3.4.1. Directness
With every utterance, a speaker performs a speech act. It can be a
question (“Where is the car?”), a command (“Give me the sweater!”), a
statement (“Something smells bad in here.”), or a bunch of other speech
acts, like promises, threats, or requests. In terms of speech acts, directness
could be explained as matching the speech act with the grammatical
structure it most naturally takes. In the examples above the question, the
command, and the statement are all easily recognizable, and can be
interpreted at face value.
Directness between equals, then, often marks closeness. You wouldn’t
think twice about telling your best friend those jeans make her behind
look horrible – at least before she buys them. Or telling your spouse that
s/he has toilet paper stuck on the sole of his/her shoe. You trust them
enough to interpret your message at face value and to not read some
hidden criticism into it.
45
Directness requires a good nose for the situation; however, being too
direct when stating your opinion might seem like an insult, especially if
the hearer perceives you as being lower in the social hierarchy. Direct
commands, of course, can easily sound like you’re bossing people
around.
Asking direct questions from someone you’re not that close with may
make the hearer feel you’re being nosy or intrusive. Furthermore, they
might feel you’re forcing them to be rude by asking a question they
cannot skate over and must answer with a direct “I don’t want to tell
you.”
http://insightings.wordpress.com/2009/01/14/directness-speech-acts
3.4.2. Indirectness
“Indirectness is a way of conveying desired messages by means of an
interrelationship of social variables and liguistic content” (McQuiddy:
1986). “Indirectness is mainly expressed by means of lexical choice,
syntactic structure, conventinal implicature and discourse structure”
(Miller, 1994:39).
If directness was defined as matching your speech act with your structure,
indirectness would then be e.g. using an interrogative structure (“Are you
wearing that to the party?”) to convey a non-question speech act, like a
statement (“I don’t think you should wear that to the party”) or even a
command(“Go put on something else.”). As already noted, indirectness is
very useful in socially distant situations. People have varied levels of
directness tolerance, and until you know where the limit is, it’s wise to
stay well on the polite side.
http://insightings.wordpress.com/2009/01/14/directness-speech-acts
"It is possible that indirectness is used more in societies which are, or
which have been until recently, heavily hierarchical in structure. If you
46
want to avoid giving offence to people in authority over you, or if you
want to avoid intimidating people lower in the social hierarchy than
yourself, then indirectness may be an important strategy. It is possible,
too, that the more frequent use by women in western societies of
indirectness in conversation is due to the fact that women have
traditionally
had
less
power
in
these
societies."
(Peter
Trudgill, Sociolinguistics: An Introduction to Language and Society, 4th
ed. Penguin, 2000)
According to Searle (1975), Brown and Levinson (1978), Blum-kulka
(1987), the two types of indirectness in requests can be distinguished by
the criterion of conventionality:
Conventional indirectness: “Conventional indirect requests realize the act
by systematic reference to some precondition needed for its realization,
and share across languages the property of potential pragmatic ambiguity
between requestive meaning and literal meaning”
(Blum-kulka ,1987:140).
For example:
- Husband said to his wife: Honey, it’s time for meal. (It
implies that the wife should prepare the dinner because it is
late) (Nguyen Quang, 1999:44).
Conventional indirectness refers to contextual preconditions necessary for
its performance as conventionalized in the language:
- How about cleaning up?
- Could you clean up the kitchen, please?
Nonconventional indirectness: partially refers to the object depending on
contextual clues:
- You have left the kitchen in a right mess.
- I’m a nun. (in response to a persistent hassler)
47
- It is dark in here (the speaker wants the hearer to open the
window/ let’s move to another room/ someone should turn on the
light…)
“Nonconventional indirectness is by definition open-ended both in terms
of propositional content and linguistic form, as well as of pragmatic
force. Thus, there is no formal limitation (…) neither on the kinds of
hints, nor on the range of pragmatic forces that might be carried by any
non-conventionally indirect utterance. Utterances that convey something
more or different from their literal meaning. It follows that the processes
of interpretation involved might differ with variation in type of
indirectness. It is by now well-established that in all interpretations of
indirectness in discourse, the hearer must match information encoded in
properties of the utterance with relevant features of the pragmatic context
(Van Dijk and Kintsch (1983), Dascal (1983)).
In conventional indirectness, properties of the utterance play the more
dominant role, while in non-conventional indirectness pragmatic context
is probably as, if not more, important”
(Blum-kulka, 1987:142).
According to (Blum-kulka, 1987:140), Brown and Levinson’s model
predicts a strong link between politeness and indirectness, based on a
hierarchical model of politeness strategies. But sometimes the indrectness
strategies are not the highest level of politeness:
For example:
(1) Em quét nhà cho anh nhé (direct) - let’s clean the house
(2) Nhà với cửa gì mà bẩn như chuồng lợn thế này (indrect)
(This house is such a mess)
It can be seen clearly that the (1) is more polite than the (2) (Nguyen
Quang, 1999:46).
48
3.5. Politeness
3.5.1.What is politeness?
Politeness, according to Gumperz (“Politeness”cited in Brown and
Levinson, 1987: VIII), “is basic to the production of social order, and a
precondition of human cooperation, so that any theory which provides an
understanding of this phenomenon at the same time goes to the
foundations of human social life.” In addition to their status as universal
principles of human interaction, politeness phenomena by their very
nature are reflected in language. Societies everywhere, no matter what
their degree of isolation or their socio-economic complexity, show these
same principles at work; yet what counts as polite may differ from group
to group, from situation to situation, or from individual to individual.
Brown and Levinson (1978) define politeness as maintaining the H’s
face, that is, letting H feel unimposed on and approved of in certain
respects. Face refers to wants, and Brown and Levinson (1978) argue that
we have two types of wants: ego-preserving wants and public-self
preserving wants, which refer to the desire to be considered a contributing
member of society. The former (ego-preserving wants) generates negative
face, and the latter (public-self preserving wants) generates positive face.
Culturally, politeness is treated as “the idea of polite social behavior or
etiquette, within a culture” (G.Yule, 1996:60). Richards et al. (1985: 281)
considers politeness as “the attempt to establish, maintain, and save face
during conversation.” So the norms of politeness are quite culturally
specific. They differ among languages and culture. Linguistically,
politeness is defined as “the international balance achieved between two
needs: the need for pragmatic clarity and the need to avoid coerciveness”
(Blum-Kulka, 1987:131).
49
Cross-culturally, politeness in communication is seen as “any
communicative acts (verbal or non-verbal) appropriately and intentionally
meant to make other(s) feel better or less bad” (Nguyen Quang, 2005:11).
3.5.2.What is FTA?
Central to an understanding of politeness is the notion of face, which is
the sense of a person’s public self-image. This concept was established by
Brown and Levinson (1978). Every speech act has potential imposition
on somebody else’s sense of face. Thus politeness in interaction can be
recognized as the means to show the awareness of a person’s public selfimage. In communicating, people may give a threat to another
individual’s self-image or face-want, they tend to create a face
threatening act (FTA). Some actions might be taken to lessen the
possible threat. This is described as a face saving act.
3.5.2.a. Positive and negative face
According to Brown and Levinson (1987:61), “Face Face is the
public self image that every adult tries to protect”. Positive face was
defined in two ways as "the want of every member that his wants be
desirable to at least some others executors", or alternately, "the positive
consistent self-image or 'personality' (crucially including the desire that
this self-image be appreciated and approved of) claimed by interactants".
Negative face was defined as "the want of every 'competent adult
member' that his actions be unimpeded by others", or "the basic claim to
territories, personal preserves, rights to non-distraction i.e. the freedom of
action and freedom from imposition".
“Ten years later, Brown characterized positive face by desires to be liked,
admired, ratified, and related to positively, noting that one would threaten
positive face by ignoring someone. At the same time, she characterized
negative face by the desire not to be imposed upon, noting that negative
face could be impinged upon by imposing on someone.[4] Positive Face
50
refers to one's self-esteem, while negative face refers to one's freedom to
act.[1] The two aspects of face are the basic wants in any social
interaction, and so during any social interaction,cooperation is needed
amongst the participants to maintain each other's faces.”
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politeness_theory)
3.5.2.b. Face threatening acts
According to Brown and Levinson (1987:65), positive and negative faces
exist universally in human culture. In social interactions, facethreatening acts are at times inevitable based on the terms of the
conversation. A face threatening act is an act that inherently damages the
face of the addressee or the speaker by acting in opposition to the wants
and desires of the other. Most of these acts are verbal; however, they can
also be conveyed in the characteristics of speech (such as tone, inflection,
etc.) or in non-verbal forms of communication. At minimum, there must
be at least one of the face threatening acts associated with an utterance. It
is also possible to have multiple acts working within a single utterance.
3.5.3. Speech atcs
“In many ways of expressing themselves, people do not only produce
utterances containing grammartical structures and words, they perform
actions via those utterances” (Yule, 1996: 47). If you work in a situation
where a boss has a great deal of power, then his utterance of expression,
“You are fired”, is more than just a statement. This utterance can be used
to perform the act of ending your employment. However, the actions
performed by utterances do not have to be as unpleasant as in the one
above. Actions can be quite pleasant, as in the acknowledgement of
thanks:“You’re welcome”, or the expression of surprise:“Who’d have
thought it?”, or in Vietnamese“ Ai mà ngờ được”.
Actions performed by utterances are generally called speech acts and, in
English, are commonly given more specific labels, such as apology,
51
complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request.“The number of
speech acts performed by the average individual in the course of any
ordinary day when our work and leisure bring us into contact with others
probably runs into the thousands” (Austin, 1962).
3.5.4. Politeness principles
It is widely accepted that the principle of politeness gorvens all the
communicative behavior. Lakoff (1977) believes that politeness usually
wins out, leading her to postulate the rules of politeness: don’t impose,
give options, make the other person feel good-be friendly. The point of
politeness is to minimize the effects of impolite statements or expressions
(negative politeness) and maximize the effects of the polite illocutions
(positive politeness).
Leech (1983) claims that politeness principle is necessary to “rescue the
co-operative principle (be true, be brief, be relevant, be clear)” which is
based on Grice’s work and that politeness principle is intended to operate
alongside the Co-operative Principle.
Leech (1983:16) suggests six maxims of politeness:
- Maxim of Tact: minimize cost to other; maximize benefit to other.
- Maxim of Generosity: minimize benefit to self; maximize cost to self
- Maxim of Approbation: minimize dispraise of other; maximize praise of
other.
- Maxim of Modesty: minimize praise of self; maximize dispraise of self.
- Maxim of Agreement: minimize the disagreement between self and
other; maximize agreement between self and other.
- Maxim of Sympathy: minimize antipathy between self and other;
maximize sympathy between self and other.
“We can thereby define politeness in terms of favorableness ( and
correspondingly impoliteness in terms of unfavorableness) because polite
52
statements are in some way favorable to hearer, while impolite statements
are unfavorable” (Eelen, 2001:8).
3.5.5. Politeness strategies
Brown and Levinson (1987:60) do not raise rules or principles but
suggest five strategies (put in figure 1 below) to deal with FTAs. They
also number these five strategies to mean that the greater the face threat
is, the greater-numbered strategy should be employed.
Figure 10: Possible strategies for doing FTAs (Brown & Levinson, 1987)
The diagram shows that when encountering an FTA, the speaker can
choose one of the five possibilities.
Brown and Levinson (1987) imply by numbering the possibilities that
negative politeness is “more polite” than positive politeness. This can be
seen in the diagram where they number the former and the latter 3 and 2
respectively. For universal validity, Nguyen Quang (1999:129-130)
proposes another one.
53
FTA encounter
4. Don’t do the FTA
Do the FTA
3. Off record
On record
2. With redressive action
Positive
Negative
politeness
politeness
Without redressive action
Figure 11: Strategies to minimize risk of losing face
Ways to reduce FTAs or enhance face wants, or even bring benefit to
hearer are Positive and negative politeness strategies and Bald on
record– without redressive action
3.5.6. Bald on record – without redressive action
Bald on record, in G.Yule’s words, is utterances directly addressed to
another where illocutionary force is made explicit
Eg. Give me your car
Being preferred as follows:
- In cases of urgency or desperation. For example: Help!
- When there is channel noise or where communication difficulties exert
pressure to speak with maximum efficiency.
- When the focus of task –orientation can make face redress be irrelevant
( in classroom, instruction, in military..)
- In some cases of teasing or joking. Eg: Do it or die
- When Bald – on record is used for H’s benefit. Eg: Get out. Fire!
54
3.5.7. Positive politeness strategies
“Positive politeness is redress directed to the addressee’s positive face,
his perennial desire that his wants (or the actions/acquisitions/ values
resulting from them) should be thought of as desirable. Redress consists
in partially satisfying that desire by communicating that one’s own wants
(or some of them) are in some respects similar to the addressee’s wants”
(Brown and Levinson, 1978:101). Those positive politeness expressions
may involve some “ getting to know you” talk, or establish the necessary
common ground between the hearer and the speaker by using such
phrases as let’s, why don’t, we...., or address forms with I to soften the
FTAs. Yule (1996:62) defines positive politeness as a face saving act
tending to show solidarity, emphasizing that both S and H want the same
thing and that they share the same goal. In simple word, positive
politeness shows concern to others.
Nguyen Quang (2005:24), based on the functions of positive politeness in
communication, defines positive politeness as “any communicative act
(verbal and nonverbal) which is appropriately and intentionally meant S’s
concern to H, thus, enhancing the sense of solidarity between them.”
Positive politeness can be understood as the ways to shorten the distance
between S and H. There are three main positive politeness mechanisms:
claim on common ground; convey that S and H are cooperators; fulfill
H’s want for some objects”.
According to Brown and Levinson (1987), there are 15 strategies of
positive politeness used to maintain positive face.
Group 1: Claim on common ground
1. Notice, attend to hearer (H) (his interests, wants, needs). Eg: Goodness, a beautiful hairstyle! (after a while) Oh, by the way,
can I borrow your bike?
55
2. Exxaggerate (interest, approval, sympathy with H) Eg: -My
God! Your work? It’s absolutely incredible! ( Trời ơi! Tác phẩm
của cậu đấy à? Thật là trên cả tuyệt vời) - Cậu trang điểm đẹp
như mơ. Ra đường khối anh chết, nhiều anh bị thương. Thôi cho
tớ mượn cây son nào. (Nguyen Quang,2004:26)
3. Intensify interest to H.
4. Use in-group identity markers
5. Seek agreement
6. Avoid disagreement
7. Presuppose/raise/assert common ground
8. Joke
Group 2: Convey that S and H are cooperators
9. Assert or presuppose S’s knowledge of and concern for H’s
wants
10.Offer, promise
11.Be optimistic
12.Include both S and H in the activity
13.Give (or ask for) reasons
14.Assume or assert reciprocity
Group 3: Fulfil H’s want for someone
15.Give gifts to H (goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation)
Nguyen Quang (2004) added two more strategies:
16.Comford and encourage H
17.Ask personal question
“Positive politeness utterances are used as a kind of metaphorical
extension of intimacy, to imply common ground or sharing of wants to
limited extension even between strangers who perceive themselves, for
the purposes of interaction. For the same reason, positive politeness
strategies are usable not only for FTA redress, but in general as a kind of
56
social accelarator, where S, in using them, indicates that s/he wants to
‘come closer’ to H” (Brown and Levinson, 1987: 103).
3.5.8. Negative politeness strategies
Negative politeness, according to Brown and Levinson (1987:70), “is
oriented mainly toward partially satisfying (redressing) H’s negative face,
his basic want to maintain claims of territory and self-determination.”
They further state that negative politeness: “is the heart of respect
behavior, just as positive politeness is the kernel of ‘familiar’ and ‘joking’
behavior. Negative politeness corresponds to ‘negative rites’. Where
positive politeness is free-ranging, negative politeness is specific and
focused; it performs the function of minimizing the particular imposition
that the FTA unavoidably effects.” In Brown and Levinson’s opinion,
“when we think of politeness in Western cultures, it is negative politeness
behavior that springs to mind. In our culture, negative politeness is the
most elaborate and the most conventionalized set of linguistic strategies
for FTA redress” (1987:130).
Nguyen Quang (2005:87), based on the functions of negative politeness
in communication, defines negative politeness as “any communicative
acts (verbal and nonverbal) which is intentionally and approprately meant
to show that S does not want to impinge on H’s privacy, thus enhancing
the sense of distance between them.”
In Bentahila and Davies’ words (1989:101), “negative politeness is
understood as a concern not to impose upon others or restrict their
freedom, but remain distance”. While positive politeness narrows the
distance between interlocutors, negative politeness keeps a distance
between them. As informed by Nguyen Quang (2005:89), positive
politeness can be called “Intimate politeness”, “Close politeness”,
“Warm politeness” while negative politeness can be differently named as
“Deference politeness”, or “Distancing politeness”, “Cold politeness”.
57
Negative politeness, thus, is essentially avoidance-based, and the
realization of negative politeness strategies consists in assurances that S
recognizes and respects H’s negative face wants and will not or only
minimally interfere with H’s freedom of action.
There are five main positive politeness mechanisms:
- Be direct
- Don’t presume/assume
- Don’t coerse H
- Communicate S’s want to not impinge on H
- Redress other wants of H’s, derivative from negative face
According to Nguyen Quang (2004), there are 11 strategies of negative
politeness:
1. Be conventinally indirect. Eg: I wonder if you could posibly
lend me the book?
2. Question, hedge. Eg: If you don’t mind/ if you can/ if it is
possible/ if you want to help me…… Could you possibly by any
chance lend me your car for just a few minutes?- Dạ phiền anh
có thể cho tôi mượn cái xe một phút được không ạ?
3. Be pestimistic. Eg: Will you open the door please?
4. Minimise the imposition. Eg: Could you lend me a little paper?
5. Give deference. Eg: I think I must be absolutely stupid but I
simply do not know how to open this box.
6. Apologise. Eg: I’m sorry to bother you but could you change
your seat with me?
7. Impersonalise S and H. Eg: It is necessary to give your opinion.
8. State the FTA as a general rule. Eg: Passengers will please
refrain from flushing toilets on the train.
9. Nominalise. Eg: We urgently request your cooperation.
58
10. Go on record as incurring a debt or not indebting H. Eg: I’d be
very grateful if you would put in a good word for me. Nếu được
anh chị giúp đỡ thì tôi không bao giờ dám quên ơn (anh/chị)
11. Avoid asking personal questions. Eg: How are you? ( health)
How are things? (job)
In sum negative politeness is understood as a concern not to impose upon
others or restrict their freedom, but remain distant. While positive
politeness narrows the distance between interlocutors, negative politeness
keeps a distance between them. This is also known as the “formal
politeness
strategy”or
“Deference
politness”,
or
“Distancing
politeness”. In Brown and Levinson’s opinion, negative politeness is
considered more polite and formal than positive politeness.
In a whole, according to Brown and Levinson (1987:15-17), “ three
sociological factors are crucial in determining the level of politeness
which a speaker (S) will use to an addressee (H): these are relative power
(P) of H over S, the social distance (D) between S and H, and the ranking
of the imposition (R) involved in doing the FTA”. And “for cross cultural
comparison these three (P,D,R) compounded of culturally specific
dimension of hierarchy, social distance, and and ranking of imposition,
seem to do a remarkably adequate job in predicting politeness
assessments”.
Furthermore, according to Nguyen Quang (2004:186), in Vietnamese
language and culture, sometimes it is difficult to clearly distinguish
between this and that strategy in positive or negative politeness, or even
in both of them. Look at the following example:
- Em xin lỗi phiền bác xin cho cháu được vào học lớp bác dạy thì gia
đình em biết ơn bác lắm lắm.
59
+ Positive politeness strategies used in this statement: Use in-group
identity markers, addressing form (danymic relationship type III): bácem
+ Negative politeness strategies used in this statement:
- Give deference: được vào học lớp bác dạy
-
Apologise: xin lỗi phiền bác
- Go on record as incurring a debt or not indebting H: biết ơn
In one statement, Vietnamese people can use both positive and negative
politeness strategies to reach to the goal of communication.
Politeness is a large and complicating field which need to be studied more
and more to deeply understand all aspects of its.
60
CONCLUSION
1. Major findings
Traditionally, in teaching and learning languages, grammaratical
structures were of primary concern. Today, communication and
communicative competence are of the first priority. Due to crosslinguistic and cross-cultural differences, the English and the Vietnamese
have different ways of expressing themselves, communicating and
moreover they differ from art, religion, belief, etc. Therefore, in order to
avoid culture shock and communication breakdown cross-cultural
interactants should be equipped with more and more awareness of not
only cross-linguistic, but also cross-cultural differences.
In this study, the author compiles teaching supplementary materials for
cross-cultural communication for English major students at VMU. This
study gives the definitions of culture, communication, cross-cultural
communication; the differences and similarities in verbal and non-verbal
communication between the two countries as well as some practical
exercises. These teaching supplementary materials can be used for
students’ self-study because learner-centered orientation has become
more and more popular in the new teaching methodology.
2. Implications for English language teaching
It is imperative that the learning and teaching of a language concentrate
on communication with an emphasis on communicative competence
rather than on linguistic competence only. Good techniques and methods
for teaching culture as well as applying it to foreign language teaching are
not easy to be found and applied effectively. To help students (SS) use
the language they learn accurately and natively, teachers (Ts) should
provide them with both linguistic and cultural input during the teaching
and learning process. “ If we teach language without teaching at the same
61
time the culture in which it operates, we are teaching meaningless
symbols or symbols to which the SS attach the wrong meaning; for
unless he is warned, he receives cultural instruction, he will associate
American concepts or objects with the foreign symbols.”(R.Polizer,
1959).
Conclusively, the role of language teachers is essentially important
because they are the ones help the learners get the second language by
instructing, encouraging, guiding, and explaining, etc. There are some
useful techniques for teaching cultural awareness which can be described
as follows:
1. Role-play: Being an actor or actress
This technique is especially useful for directly involving SS in crosscultural misunderstandings by having selected members to act out in a
series of short scenes to aware misinterpretation of something happening
in the target culture.
Activty: MAKING REQUESTS
Aim: to raise SS’ awareness of different levels of politeness in making
requests.
Material: flash card
Level: Intermediate or above
Time: 10 to 15 minutes.
Instruction: SS work in pairs, decide the best way of making request in
each situation, using the card given by Ts.
The card used could be:
62
A: You are customer. You have just B: You are waiter.
finished a meal. Request for the bill.
A: You are in the street. You want to get B: You are the driver
a lift
A: You are the robber in a bank. You B: You are the bank
want 50000$
officer.
2. Cultural assimilators. Situation-base (Karin's ESL party land/
www.eslpartyland.com )
This is a brief description of a critical incident of cross cutural interaction
that would probably be understood by the SS. Ts can provide SS with
some cultural situations (involving some solutions). SS have to work out
the solutions which are appropriate.
Aim: To increase awareness of appropriate behaviors in English-speaking
cultures; to compare and contrast these behavior patterns with those in the
SS’ own cultures.
Materials: A task sheet for each student.
Level: Elementary to Intermediate or above
Time: 15 to 20 minutes
You’ve got a doctor’s appointment You have got a question about
and need to leave class early. What something the teacher has just said in
would you do?
class. What would you do?
Your neighbour has a dog barking Your neighbours are very noisy. They
all night. You have to go to work in play loud music late at nigh and often
early moring. It drives you up the hold late night party. You have asked
wall. What will you say to your them to be quieter, but they are
neighbour.
always very rude. What should you
do now?
63
3. The culture island
Through the use of posters, picture cues, projector, Ts can attract
SS’attention to the target culture; elicit questions and comments (George
H. Hughes, 1986:167/8).
3. Limitations
Because of the curriculum of cross-cultural communication course, the
author has not had a chance to apply these teaching supplementary
materials to English major students at VMU. Hence, the author is not able
to assess the effectiveness of these materials.
Due to the constraints time, reference resources and especially the
researcher’s ability, mistakes are unavoidable. Constructive comments,
suggestions and recommendations are most welcome.
4. Further study
The author hopes that she would go further with her research on analysis
and assessment of effectiveness of these materials.
64
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In Vietnamese
1. Nguyễn Văn Độ (2004). Tìm hiểu mối liên hệ Ngôn ngữ-Văn hóa.
Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội
2. Nguyễn Quang (2002). Giao tiếp và giao tiếp giao văn hoá. Nhà
xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Hà Nội
66
3. Nguyễn Quang (2004). Một số vấn giao tiếp nội văn hoá và giao
văn hoá. Nhà xuất bản Đại học quốc gia Hà Nội.
4. Nguyễn Quang (2004). Có ®iÓn dông häc Anh – ViÖt. Nhà xuất
bản Tõ §iÓn B¸ch Khoa Hà Nội.
Website
1. www.assertbh.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Body-Language
2. www.buzzle.com/articles/hand-gestures-in-different-cultures.html
3. www.capitaleap.org/ body-language-what-were-reallysaying
4. www.eslpartyland.com
5. www.ESLvideo.com
6. www.insightings.wordpress.com/2009/01/14/directness-speechacts
7. www.web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/490/wchild/wchild21.htm
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