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NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.01 First order low pass filter Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Page 1 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Name of Technical Assistant: Objective: For the first order low pass filter evaluate 1. High cut-off frequency 2. pass band gain 3. plot the frequency response of low pass filter Apparatus: 1. Bread board 2. DC power supply ±12V 3. Function generator 4. Oscilloscope 5. multimeter 6. patch cords Theory: An active filter is frequency selective circuit that passes electric signals of specific band of frequencies and attenuates signal off frequencies outside this band depending on the type of elements used in their construction filters may be classified as passive or active filters elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors and inductors. Active filter consists of active components such as op-amp, transistors with passive elements. Most commonly used filters are: A. Low pass filter C. Band pass filter B. Page 2 of 58 High pass filter NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION LOW PASS FILTER It is a frequency selective circuit, which passes signals of frequency below its high cut-off frequency (fh) and attenuates signals of frequency above fh. Equation of high pass filter is Vout /Vin =AF /1+J(f/fh) ……..1 Vout / Vin = AF / {1+(f/fh)2}1/2 ………….2 Vin = Input signal voltage Vout = output signal voltage Vout / Vin = Gain of filter as a function of frequency AF = 1+RF /R1 pass band gain of filter F = frequency of input signal fH= 1/2πRC = high cutoff frequency, 3-db frequency, cornet frequency operation of low pass filter using equation 2 a. at low frequencies f<fh Vout / Vin <AF b. at f = fh Vout /Vin =0.707*AF(approx.) c. at f>fh Vout / Vin =AF Page 3 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION This ideal low pass filter has a constant gain AF from 0 to high cutoff frequency (fH) at fH the gain is 0.707* Af and after fH it decreases at a constant rate with an increase in frequency i.e. when input frequency is increased tenfold (one decade) the voltage gain is deviled by 10. Gain (db) =20 log Vout/Vin i.e. Gain roll off rate is -20 db/decade. This first-order low pass active filter consists simply of a passive RC filter stage providing a low frequency path to the input of a non-inverting operational amplifier. The amplifier is configured as a voltage-follower (Buffer) giving it a DC gain of one, Av = +1 or unity gain as opposed to the previous passive RC filter which has a DC gain of less than unity. The advantage of this configuration is that the op-amps high input impedance prevents excessive loading on the filters output while its low output impedance prevents the filters cut-off frequency point from being affected by changes in the impedance of the load. While this configuration provides good stability to the filter, its main disadvantage is that it has no voltage gain above one. However, although the voltage gain is unity the power gain is very high as its output impedance is much lower than its input impedance. If a voltage gain greater than one is required we can use the following filter circuit. Page 4 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Fig. Frequency Response OBSERVATION TABLE: Sr.no Input frequency (HZ) Vout Vout /Vin =Gain Gain (db) =20log Vout/Vin FOR DIFFERENT CUTOFF FREQUENCY: Resistance(Ω) Capacitance (µF) FH high cutoff Frequency(HZ) Page 5 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Procedure: 1. 1. Connect patch cords according circuit diagram as mentioned in kit trainer. 2. Connect +12V and -12V DC power supplies at there indicated position from external source. 3. Switch ON the power supply. 4. Connect a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1V (p-p) of frequency 1 KHz to the test point Vin of this filter from external source. 5. Observe output on oscilloscope by connecting test point Vout to oscilloscope. 6. Increase the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on output Vout on oscilloscope. 7. Draw a graph between gain and frequency on graph paper. Calculation: THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS: Calculation all the following values 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Pass band gain of low pass filter AF=1+RF/Rl Pass band gain (db) =20log Vout/Vin 3 db frequency fH =1/2 πRC gain at 3db frequency fH=0.707*AF gain (db) at 3 db frequency fH= 20log Vout/ Vin where Vout =(2)1/2*Vin Roll off rate = -20db /decade Results: - Page 6 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Theoretical Practical Pass band gain (Af) Pass band gain (Af) in db 3 db frequency fH Gain at 3 db frequency (fH) in db Each section and block will be studied by the students. And submitted in their lab session Precautions:1. Connect the patch cord properly. 2. Power cable plugged properly. 3. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. 4. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:1. What is filter? 2. What is the function of low pass filter? 3. Why filter is necessary in communication? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. Page 7 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 8 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.02 First order high pass filter Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Name of Technical Assistant: Page 9 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Objective: For first order high pass filter evaluate 1. Lower cut off frequency 2. Pass band gain 3. Plot the frequency response of high pass filter. Apparatus: 1. Bread board 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. DC power supply ±12V Function generator Oscilloscope multimeter patch cords Theory: An active filter is frequency selective circuit that passes electric signals of specific band of frequencies and attenuates signal of frequencies outside this band. depending on the type of elements used in their construction filters may be classified as passive or active filters. Elements used in passive filters are resistors, capacitors and inductors. Active filter consists of active components such as op-amp, transistors with passive elements. Most commonly used filters are: A. Low pass filter B. High pass filter C. Band pass filter HIGH PASS FILTER: Page 10 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION It is a frequency selective circuit, which passes signals of frequencies above it s low cut off frequency (fL) and attenuates signals of frequencies below fL. Equation of high pass filter is Vout /Vin =AF /1+J(f/fL) ……..1 Vout / Vin = AF / {1+(f/fL)2}1/2 ………….2 Vin = Input signal voltage Vout = output signal voltage Vout / Vin = Gain of filter as a function of frequency AF = 1+RF /R1 pass band gain of filter F = frequency of input signal fL = 1/2πRC = Low cutoff frequency, 3-db frequency, cornet frequency operation of high pass filter using equation. a. at low frequencies f<fL Vout / Vin <AF b. at f = fL Vout /Vin =0.707*AF(approx.) c. at f>fL Vout / Vin =AF In ideal high pass filter when f<fL gain is increased at a constant rate has a constant rate with an increase in frequency, at fL the gain is 0.707*AF. And above fL it has constant gain of AF Below fL when input frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain is multiplied 10. Gain (db) = 20 log Vout /Vini.e. Gain Roll off rate is -20db/decade. Using analysis techniques similar to those used for the low pass filter, it can be shown that Page 11 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION which is the general form for first-order (one reactive element) low-pass filters. At high o) the capacitor acts as a short, so the gain of the amplifier goes to H 0= R1/R2. o) the capacitor is an open and the gain of the circuit is H o. 0=1/R2C. Therefore this circuit is a high-pass filter (it passes high frequency signals, and blocks low frequency signals. Page 12 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION OBSERVATION TABLE: Sr.no Input frequency (HZ) Vout Vout /Vin =Gain Gain (db) =20log Vout/Vin FOR DIFFERENT CUTOFF FREQUENCY: Resistance(Ω) Capacitance (µF) FL Lower cutoff Frequency(HZ) Procedure: 8. Connect patch cords according circuit diagram as mentioned in kit trainer. 9. Connect +12V and -12V DC power supplies at there indicated position from external source. 10. Switch ON the power supply. 11. Connect a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1V (p-p) of frequency 1 KHz to the test point Vin of this filter from external source. 12. Observe output on oscilloscope by connecting test point Vout to oscilloscope. 13. Increase the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on output Vout on oscilloscope. 14. Draw a graph between gain and frequency on graph paper. Page 13 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Calculation: THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS: Calculation all the following values 7. Pass band gain of low pass filter AF=1+RF/Rl 8. Pass band gain (db) =20log Vout/Vin 9. 3 db frequency fL =1/2 πRC 10. gain at 3db frequency fL=0.707*AF 11. gain (db) at 3 db frequency fL= 20log Vout/ Vin where Vout =(2)1/2*Vin 12. Roll off rate = -20db /decade Results: Theoretical Practical Pass band gain (Af) Pass band gain (Af) in db 3 db frequency fL Gain at 3 db frequency (fL) in db Each section and block will be studied by the students. And submitted in their lab session Precautions:- 5. Connect the patch cord properly. Page 14 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 6. Power cable plugged properly. 7. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. 8. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:1. What is filter? 2. What is the function of high pass filter? 3. Why filter is necessary in communication? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 15 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.03 Second order high pass filter Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Name of Technical Assistant: Page 16 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Objective: - To design second order low pass active filter. Apparatus: 7. Bread board 8. DC power supply ±12V 9. Function generator 10. Oscilloscope 11. multimeter 12. patch cords Theory: Second Order Low-pass Filter Second order filters are important because higher order filters can be designed using them. There are two topologies for a second order low pass filter, the Sallen-Key and the Multiple Feedback ( MFB) topology. The second order response provides a high frequency asymptotic slope twice as steep as the first order. The unity gain topology of the Sallen-Key is usually applied in filter designs with high gain accuracy, unity gain, and low Q (less than 3). Second Order Low-pass Filter Second order filters are important because higher order filters can be designed using them. There are two topologies for a second order low pass filter, the Sallen-Key and the Multiple Feedback ( MFB) topology. The second order response provides a high frequency asymptotic slope twice as steep as the first order. Page 17 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION The unity gain topology of the Sallen-Key is usually applied in filter designs with high gain accuracy, unity gain, and low Q (less than 3). 1. The transfer function of the general Sallen-Key Low-pass filter is 1. For a unity gain circuit the transfer function simplifies to 1. The coefficients of the transfer function are Page 18 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 1. In order to obtain real values under the square root, C2 must satisfy the following condition 1. Given C1 and C2, the resistor values R1 and R2 are calculated through A stop band response begin having a 40db /decaderace off is obtained with second order low pass filter a first order 1pf can be converted in to a second order type simply by using an additionae RC n/w. Second order filter are additionae important because the higher order filter can be designed using them the gain of the second order filter is set by R1 and RF while the high cut off frequency FH is determined by R2;C2;R3 and C3 as follows. FH = ½ For the deviation of FH FURTHEN more for a SLP butter worth response the voltage gain magnitude. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Page 19 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION FILTER DESIGN : Expect for having the roll off rate in the stop band the frequency response of the SLP is identical to that of first order type these fore the design steps of the second order filter are identical to those of first order filter as follows. 1. Chose a value for high cut off frequency FH. 2. To simply the design calculation set R2 =R3 =R and C2=C3=C then choose a value of C< 1uf. 3. Calculated the value of R using eqn. 4. Finally because of the equal resistor (R2=R3) and capacitor (C2=C3) values. The pass band voltage gain is AF=(1+RF/R1) of the second order LPF has to be equal to 1.586 RL this gain is necessary to guarantee butter worth response since choose values of R1<100Kohm and calculate the value of RF. Procedure: 15. Connect patch cords according circuit diagram as mentioned in kit trainer. 16. Connect +12V and -12V DC power supplies at there indicated position from external source. 17. Switch ON the power supply. 18. Connect a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1V (p-p) of frequency 1 KHz to the test point Vin of this filter from external source. 19. Observe output on oscilloscope by connecting test point Vout to oscilloscope. 20. Increase the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on output Vout on oscilloscope. 21. Draw a graph between gain and frequency on graph paper. Page 20 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Calculation: THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS: Calculation all the following values 13. Pass band gain of low pass filter AF=1+RF/Rl 14. Pass band gain (db) =20log Vout/Vin 15. 3 db frequency fL =1/2 πRC 16. gain at 3db frequency fL=0.707*AF 17. gain (db) at 3 db frequency fL= 20log Vout/ Vin where Vout =(2)1/2*Vin 18. Roll off rate = -20db /decade Results: Design and analysed the frequency response of second order low pass filter. Precautions:1. Connect the patch cord properly. 2. Power cable plugged properly. 3. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. 4. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:1. What is filter? 2. What do you mean by order of the filter? 2. What is the function of high pass filter? 3. Why filter is necessary in communication? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. Page 21 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 22 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.04 Second order high pass filter Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Name of Technical Assistant: Page 23 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Objective: For second order high pass filter evaluate 4. Lower cut-off frequency 5. Pass band gain 6. Plot the frequency response of high pass filter. Apparatus: 13. Bread board 14. DC power supply ±12V 15. Function generator 16. Oscilloscope 17. multimeter 18. patch cords Theory: As with the passive filter, a first-order high pass active filter can be converted into a secondorder high pass filter simply by using an additional RC network in the input path. The frequency response of the second-order high pass filter is identical to that of the first-order type except that the stop band roll-off will be twice the first-order filters at 40dB/decade (12dB/octave). Therefore, the design steps required of the second-order active high pass filter are the same. Second-order Active High Pass Filter Circuit Page 24 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Higher-order high pass filters, such as third, fourth, fifth, etc are formed simply by cascading together first and second-order filters. For example, a third order high pass filter is formed by cascading in series first and second order filters, a fourth-order high pass filter by cascading two second-order filters together and so on. Then an Active High Pass Filter with an even order number will consist of only second-order filters, while an odd order number will start with a first-order filter at the beginning as shown. A second order high pass filter is obtained from a second LPF if R and C are interchanged and so on i.e. by simply interchanged frequency determined resistor and capacitor. The voltage gain magnitude eq. of the second order HPF is as follows Where Af =1.586 = pass band gain for the second order butter worth filter F = frequency of the i/p signal FL = low cut off frequency Since second order LPF and HPF are the same ckt. Expect that the position of resistor and capacitor are interchanged the design & frequency scaling procedure. Page 25 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: Procedure: 22. Connect patch cords according circuit diagram as mentioned in kit trainer. 23. Connect +12V and -12V DC power supplies at there indicated position from external source. 24. Switch ON the power supply. 25. Connect a sinusoidal signal of amplitude 1V (p-p) of frequency 1 KHz to the test point Vin of this filter from external source. 26. Observe output on oscilloscope by connecting test point Vout to oscilloscope. 27. Increase the frequency of input signal step by step and observe the effect on output Vout on oscilloscope. 28. Draw a graph between gain and frequency on graph paper. Calculation: THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS: Calculation all the following values 19. Pass band gain of low pass filter AF=1+RF/Rl 20. Pass band gain (db) =20log Vout/Vin 21. 3 db frequency fL =1/2 πRC Page 26 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 22. gain at 3db frequency fL=0.707*AF 23. gain (db) at 3 db frequency fL= 20log Vout/ Vin where Vout =(2)1/2*Vin 24. Roll off rate = -20db /decade Results: Designed & analysed the frequency response second order high pass filter. Precautions:9. Connect the patch cord properly. 10. Power cable plugged properly. 11. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. 12. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:3. What is filter? 4. What do you mean by order of the filter? 2. What is the function of high pass filter? 3. Why filter is necessary in communication? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 27 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.05 Characteristics of a Line Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Name of Technical Assistant: Page 28 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Objective: -Measuring the characteristics of a line Apparatus: 19. Bread board 20. Transmission Line Trainer Kit ST2266 21. DC power supply ±12V 22. Function generator 23. Oscilloscope 24. Multimeter 25. Patch cords Theory: Characteristic of a shielded line : The coaxial lines used for the transmission of electromagnetic waves consist of an external conductor of cylindrical shape, with an inner conductor arranged along the axis of the former. The two conductors are separated by dielectric material of suitable features. One of the advantages of this kind of lines is that these lines are intrinsically self shielding, due to the geometry of the arrangement of the two conductors. Moreover the shielding features of the coaxial lines improve when the frequency increases. From the electric point of view, a coaxial line can be considered as a cascade of line trunks. Each one of them can be represented as being composed of resistive, inductive and capacitive circuit elements of concentrated kind, as shown in the figure 1. R = Ohmic resistance for unit length (100m in this trainer) L = Inductance for unit length G = Conductance for unit length C = Capacitance for unit length The transmission characteristics of a line are described in terms of propagation. constant g and of characteristic impedance Z0. These parameters are typical values for each single line. The same is true for the capacitance, the inductance, the resistance and the conductance for length unit. In the telecommunications field, these values are generally expressed per meter or kilometer, for Page 29 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION practical reasons. In this case, the symbol used to indicate these magnitudes are the common symbols. This experiment measures the characteristic parameters such as R, L, C, G, Z0 and r for the transmission line included in this trainer. Procedure: 1. Figure 1 shows the modalities for the measurement to be performed. 2. Make connections as in figure 1. 3. Both the inductance and the ohmic resistance of the line are measured in series by short-circuiting end of the line and connecting the measuring instruments to the start of the line. The capacitance and the conductance are measured in parallel by operating on the open line. 4. The resistance R and the conductance G can be measured with an ohmmeter or DMM. For the conductance to be measured an ohmmeter is required which is able to perform resistance measurements with a range greater than 100 M. 5. For the measurement of series inductance L and the parallel capacitance C, a LCR meter or measuring bridge is required. The results of these measurements give values of R, L, C and G referred to the cable length that, in our case, is of 100 meters. Z0 can be measured by using the following formula: Z0 = L /C Alternate: If the LCRQ meter is not available this experiment can be performed as Page 30 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Fig. 1 Page 31 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Fig. 2 Precautions:13. Connect the patch cord properly. 14. Power cable plugged properly. 15. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. Page 32 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 16. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:1. What is Tx. Line? 2. What is characteristics impedance? 3. Name the distributed parameters of a TX. line? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 33 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.06 Attenuation of a Line Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Page 34 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Name of Technical Assistant: Objective: - Measuring the Attenuation of a Line Apparatus: 26. Bread board 27. Transmission Line Trainer Kit ST2266 28. DC power supply ±12V 29. Function generator 30. Oscilloscope 31. Multimeter 32. Patch cords Theory: The ohmic resistance R & the conductance G are responsible for energy disspation in the form of heat. These losses, which determine the attenuation characteristics, are expressed in terms of “attenuation” “a” and can be calculated by : a = 20 log (V2 / V1) Where V1 = amplitude of signal at input V2 = amplitude of signal at output a = attenuation for given length In this experiment we will measure the attenuation for the different trunks of transmission line available on the trainer. See Figure 1 Page 35 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Fig.1 Concept of matched line : Though the concept of match line is not treated in detail in this manual but the subject is certainly known to the students from the theoretical course. We have already found short-circuited resistance of the line when measured with Digital Multimeter is shown Ω. For optimum power transfer we should have the source resistance and terminating resistance also as Ω. the generator to match the line. For this purpose, it is recommended that the student utilized for all the experiments wherever terminated line experiment is done. Procedure: 1. Adjust Ri and RL for 18 and 68 respectively with the help of DMM. 2. Make connections as shown in figure 9. 3. Set the sine-wave frequency to approximately 100 KHz and level to 0.4 V. 4. Oscilloscope CH 1 shows applied input CH 2 shows outputs. 5. Measure signal level at Input, and at 25, 50, 75, and 100 m lengths. 6. Tabulate as under : Length (m) 25 50 75 100 V1 (input) V2 (output) Page 36 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 7. Now, calculate the attenuations in dB at various lengths by the formula given below : a = 20 Log V2 / V1 8. The attenuation is approximately -2 dB at 100 m. 9. Try the same with open-ended line and short-ended line. Fig. 2 Page 37 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Precautions:17. Connect the patch cord properly. 18. Power cable plugged properly. 19. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. 20. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:1. What is VSWR? 2. What is characteristics impedance? 3. Name the distributed parameters of a TX. line? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 38 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.07 Input Impedance of a Line Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Page 39 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Name of Technical Assistant: Objective: - Measuring the Input Impedance of a Line Apparatus: 33. Bread board 34. Transmission Line Trainer Kit ST2266 35. DC power supply ±12V 36. Function generator 37. Oscilloscope 38. Multimeter 39. Patch cords Theory: The input impedance of the line depends on features like the ohmic resistance, the conductance, the inductance and the capacitance. It is also related to the resistance that loads the line at the opposite end and to both the frequency and voltage of the signal. The purpose of the first part of the test is to measure the input impedance of the line under different load conditions : 1. Line terminated with matched load 2. Open line 3. Short-circuited line. In the second part of the test we will measure the phase displacement between the input voltage and current, under the 3 conditions of line termination. When the modulus and the phase displacement are known the impedance vector is fully identified. See figure Page 40 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION . Fig. 1 Procedure: 1. 2. Make the connections as shown in figure 2. 3. shown, in figure 12 allows to measure the value of input current. 4. Set the input at 0.4p-p and freq 100 KHz of sine-wave (both measurement on CRO). 5. 6. Calculate the input impedance according to the following formula : Zin = Vin / I 7. Change the frequency to 1MHz and note the values of Vin and Vm at this frequency. 8. Repeat the experiment with shorted and open line and use the following formulas to Page 41 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Precautions:21. Connect the patch cord properly. 22. Power cable plugged properly. 23. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. Page 42 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 24. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:1. What is reflection coefficient? 2. What is characteristics impedance? 3. Name the distributed parameters of a Tx. line? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 43 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.08 Study of Stationary Waves Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Name of Technical Assistant: Page 44 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Objective: - Study of Stationary Waves Apparatus: 40. Bread board 41. Transmission Line Trainer Kit ST2266 42. DC power supply ±12V 43. Function generator 44. Oscilloscope 45. Multimeter 46. Patch cords Theory: A line that has not been terminated with a load equal to its characteristic impedance is subject to a reflection phenomenon of the power from the remote end. The amount of the reflected power depends on the amount of mismatch between the characteristic impedance of the line and the load impedance. In the extreme cases of short-circuited line (RL = 18Ω) and open line (RL = 68Ω) a situation of total reflection occur for either the current wave or the voltage wave. The purpose of this test is to study the establishment of the stationary waves within the line. Procedure: 1. Ri and RL for 18 Ω and 68 Ω 2. Make connections as shown in figure 2 3. Set oscilloscope to 0.1 V / div for both channels. 4. Adjust the sine generator for an output of 0.2 Vp-p (2 div Deflection on CH 1) and at frequency 100 KHz. 5. Observe the peak to peak voltages on CH 2 at 100 m and at intermediate sockets at 75 m, 50 m & 25 m and 0m. 6. Tabulate results as under : Distance Vp-p 0m 25 m Page 45 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 50 m 75 m 100 m 7. Calculate the stationary wave ratio ‘s’ by the following formula : s = V max / V min For 100 KHz‘s’ is approximately 1.25 8. The reflection coefficient ‘r’ of the line shows how much of the energy supplied at the input is being reflected as a consequence of the load decoupling. The reflection coefficient is normally expressed in percentage and can be determined from the stationary wave ratio through the following formula : r = (s - 1) / (s + 1) At 100 KHz ‘r’ is approximately 11% 9. Repeat the same procedure for open line & short-circuited line. 10. Try the experiment with other frequencies to see the effect of frequency on 's'. Fig.1 Page 46 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Fig. 2 Precautions:25. Connect the patch cord properly. 26. Power cable plugged properly. 27. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. Page 47 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 28. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:1. What is a Tx. Line? 2. What is characteristics impedance? 3. Name the distributed parameters of a TX. line? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 48 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.09 Fault localization within the line Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Name of Technical Assistant: Page 49 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Objective: - Fault localization within the line Apparatus: 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. Bread board Transmission Line Trainer Kit ST2266 DC power supply ±12V Function generator Oscilloscope Multimeter Patch cords Theory: The Localization of the faults within the line can be performed following different methods. The method shown here for performing this test is of special interest, being based upon the use of the phenomenon of the establishment of stationary waves. Let's assume that the line is broken at unknown point between two ends. If the line is connected to a signal generator, the wave will be reflected from the break point, and a stationary wave condition is established between the input and the breakpoint. The waves along the line have maximum and minimum points at regular intervals corresponding to ¼ of the wave - length of the input signal. For the fault to be pinpointed, it is necessary to determine, the frequency value at which a voltage minimum occurs at the input. This frequency is noted as f1. The same operation is repeated at the remote end, of broken cable, and obtaining f2 value. These values are substituted in the following formula : l’ = [f2 / (f1 + f2)] / l Where, l = line length in meters l’ = distance in mts of the point of fault referred to the input of the line. Procedure: 1.Make connections as shown in figure 20 a. Note that the line is broken at 50 m length. Page 50 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 2. Set oscilloscope channel 1 to 0.1 V/ div. 3. Adjust the sine generator for output of 0.4 Vp-p (4 div deflection on CH 1) 4. Keep the frequency variable control at the minimum position. 5. Gradually increase the frequency and note the frequency at which the signal on CRO falls to minimum. This frequency is f1. 6. Repeat the test at the other end of the line as shown in figure 20 b and note the frequency at which signal on CRO falls to minimum. This is f2. 7. Enter these values in the formula and calculate the distance of break point from the input. For the fault generated at 50 m f1 and f2 are 900 KHz approximately. Fig.1 Page 51 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Fig.2 Precautions:29. Connect the patch cord properly. Page 52 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 30. Power cable plugged properly. 31. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. 32. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:1. What is a Tx. Line? 2. What is characteristics impedance? 3. Name the distributed parameters of a TX. line? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 53 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION EXPERIMENT NO.10 Phase displacement between the current & voltage Date of conduction:- Date of submission:- Submitted by other members:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Group no:- Signature Name of faculty incharge: Page 54 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Name of Technical Assistant: Objective: -Phase displacement between the current & voltage at input of line Apparatus: 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. Bread board Transmission Line Trainer Kit ST2266 DC power supply ±12V Function generator Oscilloscope Multimeter Patch cords Theory: The phase displacement between the current & voltage at input of line, under the different load conditions viz. matched line, open line and short-circuited line. See figure. Procedure: - Page 55 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION 1. Adjust Ri and RL for 18 Ω Ω respectively with the help of DMM. 2. Make the connections as shown in figure 2. 3. A1 resistance in series between the generator and the transmission line as shown, in figure 12 allows measuring the value of input current. 4. Set sine wave frequency to 100 KHz (use CRO). 5. Set the oscilloscope to XY mode. 6. 7. Observe suitable Lissajous pattern on CRO by adjusting V / div of each channel. 8. The Lissajous pattern allows measuring the phase displacement between the two signals through the ratio of the semi axis of the ellipse. Fig.1 Page 56 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Fig. 2 Page 57 of 58 NAME OF LABORATORY: CNTL LAB SUBJECT CODE: EC-505 NAME OF DEPARTMENT: ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION Precautions:33. Connect the patch cord properly. 34. Power cable plugged properly. 35. Adjust the CRO for tracing the different Waveform. 36. Check the connection before starting the kit. Lab Quiz:1. What is a Tx. Line? 2. What is characteristics impedance? 3. Name the distributed parameters of a TX. Line? Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books: 1. Ryder: Networks and Transmission Lines, PHI Learning. 2. Valkenberg: Introduction to Modern Network synthesis, Wiley India. 3. Suresh: Electric Circuits and Networks, Pearson Education. 4. Raju: Electromagnetic field theory and Transmission Lines, Pearson Education. 5. Ganesan: Transmission Lines and Waveguides, TMH. 6. Rao: Electromagnetic Waves and Transmission Lines, PHI learning. Page 58 of 58