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Socialization
The lifelong social experience by which
people develop their human potential
and learn culture
1
Social Experience
Socialization
• The lifelong social experience by which
individuals develop their human potential and
learn patterns of their culture
Personality
• A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking,
feeling, and acting
– Could a person’s personality develop without social
interaction?
2
Individual Personality
Development
•
•
•
Personality: sum total of behaviors,
attitudes, beliefs, and values of an
individual
Personality is a constantly evolving
construct (and is diff. for everybody)
Personality changes rapidly during
childhood and tends to stabilize and
remain relatively constant in adulthood
3
Nature versus Nurture
•
•
•
•
Heredity v. Social environment
Through much of modern history, human
behavior was often attributed to instinctual
origins
Social environment and learning have gained
acceptance in the realm of producing complex
and different personalities and behaviors
A mix or blending of the above two concepts is
what many psychologists and sociologists say
is responsible for the wide spectrum of human
development
4
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Theory: Seeks to explain human
motivation
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Heredity
Include:
•
•
•
•
Physical characteristics
Aptitudes: both natural and learned
Biological Drives: reproduce, seek
shelter, hunger etc.
Create limits for individuals
*if you weigh 135 pounds. You cannot be a
heavyweight boxer
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Isolation in Childhood
•
•
•
Feral Children
Institutionalization: Using
orphanages (starting in Eastern
Europe after WWII) sociologists
began to see the strong causal
relationship b/w lack of a caring
environment and development
Applies to mental, physical, and
emotional development for
children as well as adults
-abused children (emotional,
physical, sexual)
-inmates, juvenile offenders etc.
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• There is an estimated 100,000 children institutionalized in Romania's
orphanages (SoRelle). The children were placed in the orphanages for
numerous reasons, but most will blame Ceausescu’s anti-abortion and child
requirement laws. Ceausescu required that women have 5 children by the
age of 45 before he would allow them birth control or abortions
(SoRelle). However, during the child requirement laws he was also
exporting Romania's food to pay off the large national debt. Families were
put in the position to have children that they couldn’t afford or feed. The
unwanted children were sent to the state orphanages. As time went on it
became more and more excepted to leave the unwanted children in the
orphanages. It is so common to put your children in the orphanage that the
parents visit once every 6 months the children are not considered to be
abandoned at all (Dunlop).
The living conditions in the orphanages are most commonly compared to the
Nazi concentration camps.
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Social Isolation
Effect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments
• Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb
development.
Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle
• Years of isolation left both children damaged and only
capable of approximating a normal life after intensive
rehabilitation.
Genie
• Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent
disabilities
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Birth Order
Influenced By:
• Having brothers, sisters, how many, or
none at all
• Order in which you are born in relation
to your siblings
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Parental Characteristics
Influenced By:
• Age of One’s Parents>
• Level of Education>
• Religious Orientation>
• Economic Status>
• Cultural Heritage>
• Occupational Background>
• Values, Morals>
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Cultural Environment
Influenced By:
• Typical Personalities of a specific culture: also
defined as Model Personalities
*-In the U.S.> model personalities might
include competitiveness, assertiveness, selfreliance etc.
*-In Italy (or another Catholic, romance culture)
model personalities might include stronger ties
to family, more reliance on the opinions or
attitudes of friends and family, less competition
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Cultural Environment
Influenced By:
• Gender Socialization: How boys and girls
experience a culture differently.
-In the U.S.: Boys are taught to have interest in
certain activities and professions
-Boys learn to dress differently from girls
-Girls are taught to express themselves differently
-Girls are taught to act less aggressively
•
•
•
Subculture: ex: Growing up in an ethnic
household
Region of the Country
Neighborhood
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Freud: Division of the Mind
Id, Ego, and Superego
– Freud divided the
mind into three
separate processes
1. Id
2. Ego
3. Superego
 each has a different
function
 interactions among
the id, ego, and
superego result in
conflicts
Freud: Division of the Mind
1. Id: pleasure seeker
• first division of the mind to develop,
contains two biological drives~ sex and
aggression~ are the source of all psychic
and mental energy; the id’s goal is to
pursue pleasure and satisfy the biological
drives
Operated by the Id is the …
 Pleasure principle
• id operates according to the pleasure
principle which is to satisfy drives and avoid
pain, without concern for moral restrictions
or society’s regulations
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Freud: Division of the Mind
2. Ego: executive negotiator between id and superego
• Freud’s second division of the mind, develops
from the id during infancy; the ego’s goal is to
find safe and socially acceptable ways of
satisfying the id’s desires and to negotiate
between the id’s wants and the superego’s
prohibitions
 largest part of ego is conscious
 smaller part is unconscious
• Followed by the Ego is the Reality principle
 this is a policy of satisfying a wish or desire only if there
is a socially acceptable outlet available
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Freud: Division of the Mind
3. Superego: regulator
• Freud’s third division of
the mind, develops from
the ego during early
childhood; the
superego’s goal is to
apply the moral values
and standards of one’s
parents or caregivers
and society in satisfying
one’s wishes
 these moral standards of
which we are conscious
or aware and moral
standards that are
unconscious or outside
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our awareness
Sigmund Freud
Elements of Personality
• Basic human needs: Eros and Thanatos as opposing
forces
• Developing personality
– The id: Basic drives
– The ego: Efforts to achieve balance
– The superego: Culture within
• Managed conflict
– Id and superego are in constant states of conflict, with the
ego balancing the two.
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Sigmund Freud
Elements of Personality
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Freudian: Developmental Stages
– Development:
~Psychosexual stages
• five developmental periods-oral, anal,
phallic, latency, and genital stageseach marked by a potential conflict
between parent and child. The conflicts
arise as a child seeks pleasure from
different body areas that are associated
with sexual feelings (different
erogenous zones). Freud emphasized
that the child’s first five years were
most important in personality
development.
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Freudian: Developmental Stages
• Fixation:
~the source for potential personality
problems~
– can occur during any of the
first three stages – oral, anal,
phallic - refers to a Freudian
process through which an
individual may be locked into
a particular psychosexual
stage because his or her
wishes were either
overgratified or under
gratified
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Freudian: Developmental Stages
• Five psychosexual stages; that Freud said
every child goes through~
1. Oral stage: early infancy: first
18 months of life

is a time when the infant’s pleasure
seeking is centered on the mouth
with activities include: sucking,
chewing, and biting
 Fixation (manifestation as an adult)
–
adults who continue to engage in
oral activities, such as overeating,
gum chewing, or smoking; oral
activities can be symbolic as well,
such as being overly demanding or
“mouthing off”
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Freudian: Developmental Stages
2. Anal stage: late infancy: 11/2 to 3
years
 a time when the infant’s pleasure
seeking is centered on the anus
and its functions of elimination
 Fixation results in adults who
continue to engage in activities of
retention or elimination
1. retention: very neat, stingy, or
behaviorally rigid
2. elimination: generous, messy, or
behaving very loose or carefree
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Freudian: Developmental Stages
3. Phallic stage: early childhood: 3 to 6
years
 a time when infant’s pleasure seeking is
centered on the genitals
manifestation…
• Oedipus complex: process in which a child
competes with the parent of the same
sex for the affections and pleasures of
the parent of the opposite sex
Boys: develops attraction to his
mother and begins to hate his
father;fears castration;will go through life
trying to be tough
Girls: (Electra Complex): realizes she has
no penis and develops penis envy; she
turns against her mother and develops
feelings for her father; will feel inferior
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to
men
Freudian: Developmental Stages
4. Latency stage: middle to late
childhood: 6 to puberty
 time when the child represses
sexual thoughts and engages in
nonsexual activities, such as
developing social and intellectual
skills
 at puberty, sexuality reappears and
the next stage begins
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Freudian: Developmental Stages
5. Genital stage: puberty through
adulthood
 time when the individual has
renewed sexual desires that he or
she seeks to fulfill through
relationships with other people
• conflict resolution depends on how
conflicts in the first three stages were
resolved:

if the individual resolved issues in earlier
stages they will adapt well in this stage;
on the other hand if they did not they will
not be able to develop healthy
relationships
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Piaget: Cognitive Development
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Infancy and Childhood
Infancy } infant to toddler
Childhood } 2 years until puberty
During this time we go through
Maturation where:
1. Physical
2. Motor
3. Perceptual
Developments occur
Physical Development
Growth is rapid as an infant
 From roughly 6-puberty growth is slow
but steady
 Brain also follows this pattern of growth
maturing in adolescence
But
Undernourishment, abuse, neglect can
delay physical development

Motor/Perceptual Development

Motor Skills combining the use of your
brain maturing and muscle growth is
develops rapidly. Typical pattern pg.172

Perceptual abilities in infants also
rapidly develop. Using “Cliff Studies”,
voice and face recognition, we know
that infants are progressive.
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Cognitive Development

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development explains
a child’s development through (4) stages each with
its own schemas (or patterns of thinking in which
we acquire and apply knowledge about our world).
A.
Sensorimotor, birth to 18 months
1. Infants are completely reflexive to their
environment. A baby will look at you every
time you snap your fingers.
2. Object permanence: an infant realizes
objects exist when they are out of view.
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Cognitive Development
B. Preoperational: 18 months
to 6 years
1. Symbolic thought: use of
language, use of
representation
2. Egocentrism: a child can
only understand things
through their perspective.
3. Animism: tendency to
attribute life to everything.
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Cognitive Development
C. Concrete Operations: Age 6-11
1.
2.
Conservation: An object doesn’t increase or decrease because
its form changes.
Concrete logic and concepts: A child can reason and
understand “real-life” logic, but can’t grasp abstract thoughts
and problems. A bleeding cut v. cancer
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Cognitive Development

1.
2.
3.
Formal Operations: 11
years
Children can begin to
understand abstract
thought and
reasoning.
Children are ready for
adult tasks
Not all children or
adults achieve this
level of reasoning.
Criticism:
1. Development may
be more gradual
and not as abrupt.
2. Is formal
operations just a
product of higher
education?
Whatcha think?

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Jean Piaget
Cognitive Development
Cognition
– How people think and understand
Stages of development
– Sensorimotor stage: Sensory contact understanding
– Preoperational stage: Use of language and other symbols
– Concrete operational stage: Perception of causal
connections in surroundings
– Formal operational stage: Abstract, critical thinking
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Kohlberg: Moral Development
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Kohlberg: Moral Development
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Lawrence Kohlberg
Moral Development
• Moral reasoning
– The ways in which individuals judge situations as right or
wrong
• Preconventional
– Young children experience the world as pain or pleasure
• Conventional
– Teens lose selfishness as they learn to define right and
wrong in terms of what pleases parents and conforms to
cultural norms.
• Postconventional
– Final stage, considers abstract ethical principles
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Erikson’s 8 Stages of
Development
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Psychosocial Development
•Starting early in life a person begins their psychosocial
development interacting with the world around them.
•This is the time where one’s Identity begins to form.
•Erik Erikson’s 8-step theory sought to explain the
similarities.
What about the differences?
Psychosocial Development
•
•
•
Temperament: Your natural way of acting and
reacting to things in your world.
Social relationships: Your relations with your
mother and other caretakers.
Self-Esteem: Young children develop selfschemas which influence their identity and selfesteem down the road
Negative v. Positive
Self-Esteem Self-Esteem
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Psychosocial Development
Parenting Styles:
How were you raised?
Maybe? Permissive: few limits/rules, little
involvement. Leading to anti-social behavior, no
self-control.
Or? Authoritarian: very strict and disciplined often
using punishment. Leading to anxiety, social coping
skills.
How about? Authoritative: clear standards, discipline
with constructive criticism. Leads to well-rounded
children.
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Eric H. Erickson
Eight stages of development
Challenges throughout the life course
Stage 1 - Infancy: trust
(Versus mistrust)
Stage 2 - Toddlerhood: autonomy
(versus doubt and shame)
Stage 3 - Preschool: Initiative
(versus guilt)
Stage 4 - Preadolescence: Industriousness
(versus inferiority)
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Erickson
Stages
5-8
Stage 5 - Adolescence: Gaining identity
(versus confusion)
Stage 6 - Young adulthood: Intimacy
(versus isolation)
Stage 7 - Middle adulthood: Making a difference
(versus
self-absorption)
Stage 8 - Old age: Integrity
(versus despair)
45
Eric H. Erickson
This theory views personality as a lifelong
process and success at one stage
prepares us for the next challenge.
• Critics: Not everyone confronts the challenges in the
same order.
• Not clear if failure to meet one challenge predicts
failure in other stages
• Do other cultures share Erickson’s definition of
successful life?
46
Carol Gilligan
Gender Factor
Compared moral reasoning of girls and boys
• Boys develop a justice perspective.
–Formal rules define right and wrong.
• Girls develop a care-and-responsibility perspective.
–Personal relationships define reasoning.
• Critical evaluation
–Cultural conditioning accounted for the
differences.
–Male and female morals will probably become
more similar as more women enter the workplace.
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The Social Self
•
Socialization: The interactive
process through which people learn
the basic skills, values, beliefs, and
behavior patterns of society.
•
Self: a conscious awareness of
one’s distinct identity that separates
you from other members of society.
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Mead: Role-Taking
George Herbert Mead’s Role-Taking:
Theorized that we see ourselves as others
see us but then take on the roles of others.
-Therefore we anticipate what others expect
of us, or in other words see ourselves through
the eyes of others.
People primarily use the following sources:
1.
2.
We internalize the expectations of those closest to us.
(our significant others)
As we age the (generalized other) begins to guide our
behavior and what is expected of us.
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Mead: Role-Taking
Mead also theorized how individuals
develop the ability of role-taking. He
established the following 3-step process.
1.
2.
3.
Children at a very early age mimic the actions of
others without knowing the meanings.
Children then begin to “play” the roles of others and
begin to see how the world sees people different
from them
Children at a later age begin to play games which
necessitate them internalizing who and what they
are supposed to be and do. They then see how
“real-life” works.
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George Herbert Mead
Social Self
Self–The part of an individual’s personality
composed of self-awareness and self-image
1. Self develops only from social interaction.
2. Social experience is the exchange of symbols
3. Understanding intention requires imagining the
situation from the other’s point of view.
4. By taking the role of the other, we become selfaware.
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Mead
Development of Self
• Imitation
– Infants mimic behavior without understanding
intentions.
• Play
– Taking the roles of significant others
• Games
– Taking the roles of several others at once
• Generalized other
– Widespread cultural norms and values we use as a
reference in evaluating ourselves
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Building on Social Experience
George Herbert Mead described the development of the self as a process of gaining social experience. That
is, the self develops as we expand our capacity to take the role of the other.
Locke: Tabula Rasa
John Locke’s Tabula Rasa:
• Theorized that each human being is born as
a “clean slate”.
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Locke: Tabula Rasa
Tabula Rasa & Empiricism:
Ultimately, in his acceptance of the existence of God, Locke was a
dualist -- though only barely so; he did not consider man to be a
divine creature fixed with ideas on coming into this world. Locke
was an empiricist, viz., all knowledge comes to us through
experience. "No man's knowledge here can go beyond his
experience." There is no such thing as innate ideas; there is no
such thing as moral precepts; we are born with an empty mind,
with a soft tablet (tabula rasa) ready to be writ upon by
experimental impressions. Beginning blank, the human mind
acquires knowledge through the use of the five senses and a
process of reflection. Not only has Locke's empiricism been a
dominant tradition in British philosophy, but it has been a doctrine
which with its method, experimental science, has brought on
scientific discoveries ever since, scientific discoveries on which
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our modern world now depends.
Cooley: The Looking-Glass Self
Charles Cooley’s Looking-Glass
Self:
Focused his theory and
research on how an
individual develops a sense
of self.
1.
2.
3.
How we think others see us.
We analyze the reactions of
others and determine if they
view us as we view
ourselves.
We us our perceptions of
how others see us to create
feelings about ourselves.
•
The I and Me: The self has two
parts.
–
–
1.
2.
Active side of the self is “I”
Objective side of the self is
“me”
I: the unsocialized,
spontaneous, self-interested
part of one’s personality and
self-identity.
Me: aspect of one’s self that is
aware of societies
expectations and attitudes.The
socialized self.
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Cooley: The Looking-Glass Self
• The basis of a child’s self is created by the
reflection they get from their parents,
caregivers, family etc.
• This theory places great weight on a child’s
parents, environment, and reflection they get
back from those who have a profound impact
• One’s self image and the redefinition of it
continues throughout life
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Agents of Socialization
•
•
•
•
The Family
The School
The Peer Group
The Mass Media
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The Family
• Most important agent
– A loving family produces a happy well-adjusted
child.
• Parental attention is very important
– Bonding and encouragement
• Household environment
– Stimulates development
• Social position
– Race, religion, ethnicity, class
59
Agents of Socialization
Agents of socialization are the main components of
society that sociologists feel allow the process of
socialization to take place.
1. Family:
•
•
•
Family is the key component of socialization in
most societies.
Families socialize through both deliberate and
unintended activities and means.
Because of the endless combinations and
differences in families, uniquely different
individuals are produced
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Racially Mixed People across the United States
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Agents of Socialization
2. Peer Group:
•
•
As a child ages and leaves the home
peers begin to exact influence on an
individual.
Peer group values and norms are not
always the same as one’s family’s’.
63
Peer Groups
A social group whose members have interests, social
position and age in common
• Developing sense of self that goes beyond the
family
• Young and old attitudes and the “generation gap”
• Peers often govern short-term goals while
parents influence long-term plans.
• Anticipatory socialization
– Practice working toward gaining desired positions
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Agents of Socialization
3. School:
•
School as a social institution attempts to
socialize individuals through numerous
means
1. Deliberate education
2. Extracurricular activities (to prepare
individuals for a well rounded life).
3. The unintended process of socialization
through contact with teachers and other
peers.
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The School
• Experience diversity
– Racial and gender clustering
• Hidden curriculum
– Informal, covert lessons
• First bureaucracy
– Rules and schedule
• Gender socialization begins
– From grade school through college, gender-linked
activities are encountered.
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Agents of Socialization
4. Mass Media:
Instruments of communication that in
modern society envelope people, with
constant information and images
Junk TV: kids fed 9 fast food
ads an hour
About a quarter of
commercial
television
advertisements are
for food.
67
Mass Media
Impersonal communications aimed at a vast audience
• Televisions in the United States
– 98% of households have at least one TV.
– Two-thirds of households have cable or satellite.
• Hours of viewing television
– Average household = 7 hours per day
– Almost half of individuals’ free time
– Children average 5 ½ hours per day.
• Television, videotapes, video games
68
Television Ownership
in Global Perspective
Agents of Socialization
• Studies show preschoolers spend an average of nearly 30 hours
a week watching television;
• some spend more time watching television than doing anything
else except sleeping (Anderson, Lorch, Field, Collins, & Nathan,
1986; Aulette, 1994; Kaplan, 1991).
• Nielsen Media Research has found that by the time children are
16 years old, they have spent more time watching television
than going to school (as cited in Basow, 1992). As a result,
children are exposed to about 20,000 advertisements a year
(Stoneman & Brody, 2001).
• By the time a child graduates from high school, he will have
witnessed 16,000 violent deaths on television (Gerbner & Gross,
1976).
• By the time a child graduates from high school they will have
witnessed 200,000 fictional acts of violence.
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The Life Cycle
71
The Life Course
• Childhood (birth through 12)
– The “hurried child”
• Adolescence (the teenage years)
– Turmoil attributed to cultural inconsistencies.
• Adulthood
– Early: 20-40, conflicting priorities
– Middle: 40-60, concerns over health, career and
family
• Old age (mid-60s and older)
– More seniors than teenagers
– Less anti-elderly bias
– Role exiting
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An Average Day
In The Life of A teenager:
In Just One average Day:
1. 2,795 teen-agers become pregnant
2. 1,106 pregnant teens have abortions
3. 1,027 babies are born drug and alcohol exposed in utero
4. 375 teens are arrested for drug abuse
5. 437 teens are arrested for drinking and driving
6. 177 teens are arrested for violent crimes
7. 8 teens are killed by firearms
8. 30 children are wounded by gunfire
9. 135,000 children bring a gun to school
10. 2,756 high school students drop out
11. 1,849 children are abused or neglected
12. 5 teen-agers commit suicide
13. 3,288 children run away from home
14. 1,900 public school students are corporally punished
15. 16,964 public school students are suspended
16. 1,629 children are in adult jails
These statistics are from the Children’s Defense Fund, 2007. The figures come from crime reporting. Other
73
facts come from; Startling statistics about children. American Bar Association Journals.
74
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Global Map 5.1
Child Labor in Global Perspective
77
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Adulthood
Dying
• 85% of Americans die after age 55.
• Elisabeth Kübler-Ross stages of dying
– Denial
– Anger
– Negotiation
– Resignation
– Acceptance
82
Adulthood
83
The World of Work
• The composition of the American
workplace is changing.
• Will you have a job or a profession
84
The World of Work
• Will you have job satisfaction?
- average American will hold nine
jobs between the ages of 18-34
-average American will change
careers 5-6 times in a lifetime
85
Late Adulthood
 Sociological stages of Old Age
1. Young-Old 65-74: adjusting to retirement
2. Middle-Old 75-84: physical/mental
decline, death
3. Old-Old 85 +: increased dependence,
death
Source:
SSA
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Late Adulthood
• Physical and Mental Functioning
87
Late Adulthood
• Dealing With Dependency
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Total Institutions
A setting in which people are isolated from the rest of
society and manipulated by an administrative staff.
Erving Goffman
• Staff supervises all daily life activities
• Environment is standardized.
• Formal rules and daily schedules
89
Resocialization
Efforts to radically change an inmate’s personality by
carefully controlling the environment
• Staff breaks down identity.
– Goffman: “Abasements, degradations, humiliations,
and profanations of self”
– Staff rebuilds personality using rewards and
punishments.
• Total institutions affect people in different ways.
– Some develop an institutionalized personality.
91