Download Botschafter und Botschaften in Konstantiniyye zur Zeit Sultan III

European Ambassadors as Cultural Avantgarde in
Constantinople/Konstantiniyye
This is a project on the cultural influences of the diplomatic relations between the Ottoman
Empire and the European Powers, and it focuses on the eighteenth century, although covering
in general sixteenth, seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. It endeavours to illustrate the
extent to which and the dimensions of the cultural influence of the European diplomatic
missions on the cultural life of the Ottoman Istanbul, through evidence tracing the earliest
opera practice by European troupes in the Capital.
The major motivation for this research is a fascinating discovery in the Ottoman history: it
was the Swedish embassy that hosted and staged the first opera performance known in
Istanbul, the year was 1786. This information drove the inspiration for us to undertake
research on opera and diplomacy in Ottoman history. As the research continued, further
inspiring findings were encountered: this time it was the Venetian community that staged the
first ballet performance in Istanbul, what is interesting here is, the year was 1524; decades
before the academically accepted origins of ballet in 1581 in France. With these significant
pieces of information, we have come to assume that the other European diplomatic missions
in Istanbul may also have given opera performances or have invited from Europe opera
troupes to perform in the embassies. The above-mentioned information and this assumption
have been the driving forces of this research. Therefore the aim is to remap the theatrical side
of the cultural relations between Ottoman Empire and the European powers in the eighteenth
century through the bilateral diplomacy.
The project is composed of four fundamental constituents and commences with a portrayal of
Sultan Selim III with a focus on his reforms in diplomacy. The second of these constituents
concerns itself with the Ottoman ambassadors and envoys in the eighteenth century Europe
together with the sefâretnames (ambassadorial reports) of the Ottoman envoys and the
cultural and artistic aspects to it. The following constituent engages itself with the European
side of the story and looks at the European envoys and ambassadors in the eighteenth century
Ottoman Capital; with a focus on their influences on the cultural and arts scene of Istanbul of
the time. In the final section, the project looks at the relationship between opera and Ottomans
from the early to mid-nineteenth century.
European Ambassadors as Cultural Avantgarde in Constantinople/Konstantiniyye . 1
I. Europäische Basis-Daten .................................................................................... 3
Rulers ................................................................................................................. 3
Ambassadors ...................................................................................................... 3
Ambassadors' operas .......................................................................................... 6
II. In the Sultan's Capital ........................................................................................ 9
Three Ambassadors’ Performances in Constantinople 1524 - 1665 - 1786 ....... 9
Sultan III Selim – Diplomatic reforms and the entrance of Opera to the
Ottoman Court ................................................................................................. 12
Opera, Ottomans and Diplomats: Highlights ................................................... 13
III. Further Prospectives ....................................................................................... 15
Cultural Relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg States ..... 15
Turkish Opera and Opera in Turkey ................................................................ 15
Female Grandeur and Operatic Performance ................................................... 16
European Ambassadors as Cultural Avantgarde in Constantinople/Konstantiniyye . 1
I. Europäische Basis-Daten .................................................................................... 3
Rulers ................................................................................................................. 3
Osmanlı or Ottoman, the Imperial House of Osman ...................................... 3
The three Reformer Sultans............................................................................ 3
Ottoman and European Rulers Index ............................................................. 3
Ambassadors ...................................................................................................... 3
On Collecting Data ......................................................................................... 5
A risky job – To Layout History .................................................................... 5
The Table of Ottoman-European Diplomats .................................................. 5
Ambassadors' operas .......................................................................................... 6
1. ..................................................................................................................... 6
2. ..................................................................................................................... 7
The Table of Diplomats' Operas..................................................................... 8
II. In the Sultan's Capital ........................................................................................ 9
Three Ambassadors’ Performances in Constantinople 1524 - 1665 - 1786 ....... 9
1524 The Earliest 'Ballet' Performance – Palazzo Venezia......................... 9
1st Interlude ............................................................................................... 10
1665 A Performance by the Capuchins – Palais de France ......................... 10
2nd Interlude .............................................................................................. 11
1786 The first opera performance – Palais de Suède ................................ 11
3rd Interlude .............................................................................................. 12
Sultan III Selim – Diplomatic reforms and the entrance of Opera to the Otoman
Court ................................................................................................................. 12
Artist in Own Right ...................................................................................... 12
Diplomatic Reforms ..................................................................................... 12
Opera at Court .............................................................................................. 13
Opera, Ottomans and Diplomats: Highlights ................................................... 13
Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) ........................................................................... 13
Abdülmecid (r. 1839-1861) .......................................................................... 13
Abdülhamid II (r.1876-1909) ....................................................................... 14
III. Further Prospectives ....................................................................................... 15
Cultural Relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg States ..... 15
Turkish Opera and Opera in Turkey ................................................................ 15
Female Grandeur and Operatic Performance ................................................... 16
I. Europäische Basis-Daten
The three following parts, rulers, ambassadors and ambassadors’ operas are the three corners,
or three “supporting pillars” of the research. These three pillars are the European basic data,
which enable the research to develop; for without these basic data it would not be possible to
conduct sound research on these two fields, opera and diplomacy.
As we deal with the history of diplomacy and that of opera in Ottoman world and Europe, we
necessarily must possess an overview of empires, kingdoms, states and their almighty rulers,
as well as of our subject matter, the ambassadors who play a remarkable role in opera history.
Therefore we present them as our “three supporting pillars”.
These basic data are presented in three compilations conducted by Don Juan Archiv Wien,
and provide scholars, researchers and the enthusiasts of the fields with the above-mentioned
interrelations not only an “overview” of the relevance of diplomacy and opera in context of
Ottoman and European history; but also as reference to further research. The compilations
may also serve as source for further/other publications.
RULERS
This study registers in detail the Ottoman Sultans and the European rulers chronologically,
and is meant to provide background and support for the projects “Diplomacy as Cultural
Exchange” and “Ottoman Empire and European Theatre”.
Osmanlı or Ottoman, the Imperial House of Osman
The entire eighteenth century falls into the Stagnation Era (1683-1827) of the Ottoman
Empire beginning with the defeat of the Second Siege of Vienna. But surprisingly, or
contradictorily, this era is also when extensive reforms in various areas were instituted by
certain extraordinary members of the House of Osman.
The three Reformer Sultans
Selim III (r. 1789-1807), Mahmut II (r. 1808-1839) and Abdülmecid I (r. 1839-1861) are
mostly known as the reformer Sultans of the Ottoman dynasty, who implemented significant
military, diplomatic, legal and social reforms. Nevertheless, a more important common
characteristic of them was their affinity to musical-scenic arts. Selim III was a highly talented
composer and poet and the first Sultan known to invite an opera troupe to the court.
Mahmut II to establish the first military band except that of the Mehter, invited Giuseppe
Donizetti, who established the first Ottoman orchestra and trained many musicians. His heir to
the throne, Abdülmecid I, an advocate of reforms like his predecessor and father Mahmut II,
was also a true enthusiast of classical music, theatre and opera, thus closely befriended with
Giuseppe Donizetti, and was the founder of the first court theatre at the Dolmabahçe Palace
(est. 1859).
Ottoman and European Rulers Index
We believe it is not possible to conduct sound research on theatre, opera or cultural history
without having an overview of the historical facts of the era we analyze. Therefore, it was
essential to map the Ottoman-European history through the rulers in history, so the Ottoman
and European Rulers Index serve to this aim.
AMBASSADORS
The project also includes a section which enlists the register data of the Ottoman envoys and
ambassadors in the 18th Century European states, and the European envoys and ambassadors
in the 18th Century Ottoman Constantinople. This study maps the most essential data (as far as
it is available) relevant to diplomats, data on the state and the regime they belong to, data on
the rulers by whom and to whom the diplomats are sent on mission, the data on the diplomats
themselves, their diplomatic title, place and duration of their residency, reason for their
mission (where available), as well as the bibliographic data together with comments (where
available) at the end.
The bibliographical data lays out the key researchers, scholars and authors who wrote on
Ottoman and European ambassadors, those we mostly benefited from in this study: Joseph
von Hammer-Purgstall (1833) , Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches I-X , vol. IX, has been
for this study the key source, as Hammer-Purgstall is the first scholar who wrote as an
eyewitness to mmm centuries, and as he provides the earliest source known to us on
diplomatic registers of the Ottomans .
Other authors and researchers are as follows:
Tommaso Bertele (1932) bailos and ambassadors of the Venetian Republic in La Fulgida
Porta between 15th-20th Centuries (until 1929) ,
Bertold Spuler (1936) European diplomats in Istanbul until the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739
Faik Reşit Unat (1946) Ottoman ambassadors to Asian and European States between 15th -20th
Centuries until the establishment of permanent embassies in 1835, Ottoman ambassadors to
Great Britain between 18th-20th Centuries and to Russia between 16th-19th Centuries, Russian
envoys to the Sublime Porte between 15th-19th Centuries, British ambassadors in Istanbul
between 16th-20th Centuries, Ottoman ambassadors to Persia between 16th -19th Centuries ,
Persian envoys to Istanbul between 16th-19th Centuries,
Stanford Jay Shaw (1971) first Ottoman resident ambassadors under Selim III’s reign,
Erwin Matsch (1986) diplomats of the Habsburg Monarchy / Austro-Hungarian Empire
between 1720-1920
Michael Hochedlinger (1991), the French-Turkish relations between 1525-1792
Jean-Michel Casa (1995) French ambassadors to l’Empire Ottoman between 1525-1991
Eveline Markom (2001) Austrian diplomatic relations to the Ottoman Empire in 18th Century
Marlies Hoenkamp-Mazgon (2002) Dutch diplomatic representatives in Turkey from 1612
until today, Dutch Consuls General in Istanbul from 1936 until today, Ottoman ambassadors
and envoys in The Hague from 1855 until today
Uygur Kocabasoglu (2004) British envoys, ambassadors and consuls in the Ottoman Empire
between 1580-1900
Ömer Kürkçüoglu in Nuri Yurdusev (2004) Adoption of Ottoman Permanent Diplomacy
under Selim III
Alexander H. de Groot (2007) Political, Economical, Social and Cultural Relations of the
Netherlands and Turkey between 16th-20th Centuries
Sture Theolin (o.J..) Swedish envoys and ambassadors in the Ottoman Empire between 16301998
Karl Teply (o.J.) diplomats of the Habsburg Monarchy to the Sublime Porte between 16th-18th
Centuries
On Collecting Data
Certainly there are also cases where we benefited from the friendly support of present-day
foreign ministry archives, embassies in Ankara and consulates in Istanbul. These institutions
were pleased to hear about and showed interest in this research, with only a few of them
providing the complete list of their ambassadors in Istanbul.
A risky job – To Layout History
The research of European and Ottoman diplomats originally began with the focus of 18th
Century, but as the research continued deeper, it became clear that it would be unfair to
restrict the data only to the eighteenth and exclude the other centuries. Therefore, the layout of
European-Ottoman diplomatic exchange has considerably expanded, as far as the research
allowed. However, the extent of data differs from state to state; for instance, the diplomatic
history of three Italian Republics Florence, Genoa, Venice in Istanbul dates back as far as the
mid-fifteenth century (1444, 1451, 1453), whereas for Kingdom of Prussia, anf then Kingdom
of Germany as well as Saxony, which also belonged to the Holy Roman Empire; only limited
data starting with nineteenth century (1877) has been so far available. This might be
considered to create a certain inconsistency; therefore dealing with the collected data in
mapping the diplomatic history can be rather complex and demanding.
The Table of Ottoman-European Diplomats
This study comprises the compilation of all the European ambassadors on mission as well as
the locations of the embassies during the 18th Century in the Capital of the Ottoman Empire,
Data for the following states are already available: Republic of Florence (1444-1578),
Republic of Genoa (1451-1704), Republic of Venice (1453 -1797), England (1506-1856),
Spain (1519-2008), Holy Roman Empire (1521-1806), France (1525-2008), Netherlands
(1612-1923), Sweden (1630-2008), Poland (1414-1790 and from 1700-1774), Russia (17011802), Romania (1859-2008), German Empire (1877-1918). Data collection for the states
Denmark, Germany, Portugal and Switzerland is yet in progress.
The study also covers the data for all Ottoman ambassadors in European Capitals including
Russia and the Italian states in history, also covering the 18th Century. The following
benchmark data are already available: Ottoman envoys sent to: Republic of Venice (14171720), Poland (1443-1778), Hungary (1443- ? )Republic of Florence (1487-?), Kingdom of
Naples (1494-1741), Russia (1518-1833), Holy Roman Empire (1535-1806), Austrian Empire
(1806-1867), Habsburg Monarchy (1867-1918); Austria (1918-2008) France (1559-1845),
England (1619-1952), Netherlands (1629-1687), Sweden (1727-1731), Prussia (1763-1796),
Spain (1649-1786).
This two-faceted research and layout well gives way to a comparative angle within the study;
thus it will be possible to make evaluations of the background of the political relations of
Ottomans with European states. A survey of the diplomatic history of Ottomans as well as the
European states will also therefore be possible to compare. Furthermore, it will also be
possible to compare the eras of Ottoman Sultans and European Kaisers/Kings. Special
emphasis is given to the embassies of the three emperors:
1. Those of the Sultan / Caliph’s,
2. Those of the Russian Tsar’s,
3. Those of the Holy Roman Emperor.
Ottoman & Austrian Aspects of Diplomacy: It is about diplomacy which acted in the historical
connection process of, or better to put it, in the approximation, the approaching of the two
powers: the first document known as ambassadorial report in the Ottoman State is the report
of Haci Zaganos (d. 1462) who was sent to Vienna in mid-fifteenth century, whereas the first
Ottoman envoy to Vienna is officially known as Memiş Çavuş sent in 1535. (Faik Resit Unat,
Osmanli Sefirleri ve Sefaretnameleri Ankara 1968, p.43)
AMBASSADORS' OPERAS
This constitutes perhaps the most crucial, even the central part of the entire project. It is the
part where the two research fields of opera and diplomacy join together. The relevance and
the relation of the opera works with diplomacy and diplomats are diverse: research shows not
only that (European) ambassadors acted as impresarios, opera producers, artistic directors,
and even as singers, actors and composers in history, but also that there are numerous opera
and ballet pieces composed/performed to be dedicated to ambassadors. Therefore this study is
the core of our research in diplomacy.
With the study of Ambassadors’ Operas, Don Juan Archiv Wien is leading the undiscovered
territory of opera and diplomacy in academia. This study will serve as a reference not only for
repertoire research, but also for specific field research of opera and diplomacy.
To obtain a scientific result of “ambassadors” and “opera”, initially information of all the
italian operatic works which are related to ambassadors were searched and brought together
from Claudio Sartori’s. I libretti italiani a stampa dalle origini fino al 1800. Con 16 Indici. (7
voll. Cuneo: Bertola & Locatelli, 1990-1994) This was done by a search in the digitalized
Sartori-database of Don Juan Archiv Wien. In order to construct a scientific layout of
Ambassadors’ Operas, it was also essential to categorize the existing information of the opera
libretti; therefore new criteria were needed. So, the study is conducted in 32 criteria) which
enable future researchers to examine the study in all aspects.
1. The 256 works in the table are staged in the following countries, cities and between the
following years:
Italy 222 during the period 1612-1798
Cities: Alessandria, Ancona, Arezzo, Benevento, Bergamo, Bologna, Brescia, Monferrato,
Città di Salerno, Cortona, Crema, Cremona, Faenza, Ferrara, Firenze, Foligno, Genova,
Livorno, Lucca, Lugo, Macerata, Mantova, Messina, Milano, Napoli, Padova, Palermo,
Parma, Pavia, Pergola, Perugia, Piacenza, Reggio, Roma(*), Torino, Trieste, Velletri (in
Roma), Venezia, Verona, Vicenza.
Vatican 16 during the period 1610-1792
Portugal –Lisbon 7 during the period 1728-1799
Germany - Hamburg 1 in 1746
Spain -Madrid 1 in 1750
Austria-Vienna 2 during the period of 1726-1727
Great Britain-London 2 during the period 1710 and 1799
Belgium-Brussels 1 in 1728
Czech Republic-Prague 1 in 1730
Greece-Corfu 1 in 1790
Poland-Gdansk 1 in 1646
Russia-St. Petersburg 2 in 1788 and 1798
2. In the 256 works in the table the following historic states are represented through
attribution to their ambassadors. Across each state, the number of the works associated by that
state is denoted:
A
Ancona- Stati della Chiesa 1
Arezzo-Granducato di Toscana 1
B
Bari / Padri Capuccini 1
Baviera/S.R.I. 1
Berna’ 1
Bologna-Stati della Chiesa 1
C
Castelfranco Veneto/ Repubblica di Venezia 1
Città di Bologna 2
Comune di Macerata 1
Comune di Zagarolo 1
Comunita d’ Alessandria 1
Comunità di Piacenza 1
Comune di Livorno 1
Cortona /Toscana 1
D
Ducato di Milano 4
Ducato di Modena e Reggio 5
Ducato di Parma e Piacenza 1
Ducato di Mantova 1
Ducato di Ferrara 2
F
Faenza 2
Firenze/ Granducato di Toscana 4
Foligno-Stati della Chiesa 2
Francia 23
G
Gli Stati Generali 1
Grande Bretagna 8
Granducato di Toscana 7
I
Impero Ottomano 2
L
M
La Santa Ordine Di Gerusalemme 1
Malta 2
Monreal 1
O
Ordine dei Minori Conventuali 2
Ordine di S. Stefano 1
P
Polonia 6
Portogallo 18
R
Regno di Napoli 10
Regno di Sardegna 1
Regno delle due Sicilie 11
Repubblica Cispadana 1
Repubblica di Francese 3
Repubblica di Genova 4
Repubblica di Lucca 3
Repubblica di Venezia 18
Russia 5
S
Sassonia 2
Spagna 55
Svezia 2
S.R.I. 53
S.M.I.R.A. 3
Stati della Chiesa 8
The Table of Diplomats' Operas
This tableau compiles operas which are performed in honour of, or in the presence of the
diplomat/ambassador; there are also operas where an ambassador appears as a plot character,
and also operas where ambassadors themselves appear as actors.
The tableau enlists libretti information of Italian opera and ballet works which feature
diplomats, namely ambassadors and ministers, and, as said, is based on Claudio Sartori’s
Catalogue. The compilation covers a total of 256 opera and ballet works, with the initial item
on the tableau dated 1615 and the final one dated 1799.
The tableau opens with the researched keywords, and is divided into four sections as follows:
Preambulante Commediante Teatrante Itinerante: This section compiles the opera/ballet
works which are presented in the presence of an ambassador, and also incidences where an
ambassador contributes as an actor himself.
Ambasciatori/AmbasciatariciDedicatarij: This section compiles the opera/ballet works which
are dedicated to ambassadors or which are performed in honour or in presence of the
ambassadors.
Ambasciatori Inpresarij is the section which features opera/ballet works where an ambassador
acts as an impresario, an initiator, or a producer in the realization of the performance; so to
say the works which are performed or produced with the “patronage” of ambassadors.
Anbasciatori/Ambasciatrici Dramatis Personæ: This fourth section covers the opera/ballet
works where an ambassador contributes as an actor and/or appears as a character in the plot.
The tableau ends with an additional part which illustrates the operas (20) written in memory
of Inês de Castro (1325-1355), the Galician noblewoman, daughter of Pedro Fernandez de
Castro (n.s.), who came to Portugal on King Afonso IV (1291-1357) court as a princess’
(Constance of Castile, wife of prince Pedro) maid, steals the heart of the heir to the throne
prince Pedro (later king Pedro I, 1320-1367/r.1357-1367), thus is unfortunately destined to be
denounced all her life by the until he orders her death and has her murdered. Posthumously
King Pedro I declared her his lawful wife, and therefore Queen of Portugal. Her tragic story
immensely inspired playwrights, poets and composers.
We employed currently 32 criteria to sort the information out featured in the table. These
criteria analyze the following characteristics of the libretti prints:
01-02 Numbering & State of representation: The section and number of the work in
the table, as well as the current and the old names of the country or state where
performance took place
03 State represented: The represented country or state represented through the
ambassador in question, the name and rank of the ambassador
04 Event and Dedication: The occasion for performance, dedication of the
performance
05 Representation Info.: City, location, year as well as the impresario of the works
06 Opera/ Ballet: Title of the work, article to the title as well as the genre of the work
07 Artists: the artists, who created and produced the work including poet, composer,
conductor, choreographer, composer of the ballet-music, stage designer and costume
designer
08 Print Info.: City and year of print, as well as the printing house, and illustrator(s)
where available
09-11a Bibliography: Bibliographical data of the libretti prints including Schatz
number, Sartori number and the original Sartori file card
II. In the Sultan's Capital
This is where we take a close look at the relation of opera and diplomacy in Istanbul. The
following three parts compose a summary of the history of opera in Ottoman Empire. The
first of them brings together the earliest performances relevant to diplomacy in Ottoman
history; the second one portrays the age of Sultan Selim III (1761/1789-1807/1808) and
contextualizes Ottomans reception of opera with Selim III and the diplomacy in his era, and
finally the third part sums up the linkages of Ottomans and opera.
THREE AMBASSADORS’ PERFORMANCES IN CONSTANTINOPLE 1524 - 1665 - 1786
The three events which follow are significant and focal for our research interests; because
they feature the firsts which we have come to find out so far: the first ballet performance, the
first drama performance in the French Embassy, and the first opera performance in Ottoman
Istanbul.
The history of western performing arts in the Ottoman life covers a rather surprising timespan: from as early as 16th to 19th Centuries. Throughout this lengthy period, diplomatic corps
enjoy an influential role. The initial encounters of Ottoman envoys in European Capitals as
they were sent on mission in 18th Century constitute the introduction of this art form to the
Ottoman society, and their ambassadorial reports and chronicles provide the initiatory
evidential documents.
1524 The Earliest 'Ballet' Performance – Palazzo Venezia
Metin And (1927-2008), doyen of performing arts studies in Turkish and internationally
acclaimed performing arts historian, in his work The Italian Stage in Turkey, Turkey on the
Italian Stage (Metis Publ. 1989) which, being published in both Turkish and Italian, remains
an indispensable reference for Turkish theatre/opera researchers, gives us an account of a
finding he encountered in a study on ballet history published in France by Ferdinando Reyna,
Des Origines du Ballet, Paris 1955, p. 91).
« En 1524, à Constantinople, la colonie vénitienne fit régler un étrange ballet : une jeune fille
très belle, prisonnière de deux vieillards, invoquait désespérément la Mort : en dansant elle
exprimait tout cela par le geste. Et la Mort venait, elle la touchait de sa faulx ; les vêtements
de la jeune fille tombaient et elle restait nue, morte, enveloppée dans ses cheveux d’or. »
As And also mentions, Reyna unfortunately does not provide the original source for this
unique information.
1ST INTERLUDE / THE FIRST TURKISH THEMES ON EUROPEAN STAGES
Turkish themes appear rather often in various repertoires and periods in theatrical history.
One example is the compilation titled “Sultans on Opera Stage”, studied by Johannes
Schweitzer. From Catalogo analitico “I Libretti Italiani a Stampa dalle Origini al 1800” of
Claudio Sartori (Cuneo 1994), Schweitzer compiled the Italian libretto prints that bring out a
“Sultan” as subject and cast. This study of Schweitzer introduces stage works with the
following Sultans/Sultan figures: Osmano (Osman), Bajazet (Beyazit), Amurat II. (Murat II),
Memete II.(Mehmet II), Solimano I. & II. (Süleyman I & II), Ibrahim, Selim I. & II.
(Link to J. Schweitzer Table)
Another example to the first Turkish themes on European Stages is provided by Stephan
Schmuck, in his essay “From Sermon to Play: Literary Representations of ‘Turks’ in
Renaissance England 1550-1625”. The essay investigates the figure of ‘Turks’ in English
literary and dramatic texts. One of the earliest of such is that of John Fox, titled The Worthy
Enterprise of John Fox, in Delivering 266 Christians Out of the Captivity of the Turks, and is
dated back to 1579. There is in fact vast bibliographical material on Turkish themes in
European art. Michael Hüttler has conducted two bibliographical studies on literature
collection of opera / travel / cultural exchange between Habsburg Monarchy and Ottoman
Empire in 18th Century as well as of Turkish themes in the opera and drama of the 17th and
18th Centuries. (Link to M.Hüttler Bibliography)
1665 A Performance by the Capuchins – Palais de France
Acclaimed Austrian theatre scholar Walter Puchner, renowned for his research on 17th
century religious and barock drama, in his latest article to be published in the coming volume
of Don Juan Archiv Wien « European Drama and Theatre in Seventeenth-Century Istanbul »,
shares with the reader an astoundingly essential discovery; a drama performance in the French
Embassy in 1665, evidently the first performance known to be realized in the French Embassy
in Istanbul:
« There is evidence of a theatrical production by the capuchins in Galata, Constantinople, in a
document of 1665. Unlike the Jesuit plays, the event did not happen in the church, but in the
French Embassy. (…) The Capuchins performed the religious drama Le Baptesme de Saint
Genest, an adaptation of Jean Rotrou’s (1609-1650) tragedy about the story of the mimemartyr. (…) The central role in this St. Genesius play, the Roman Emperor Gaius Aurelius
Valerius Diocletianus, was played by the son of the chargé d’affaires of the French embassy,
François Roboly (d. 1689). The performance was very successful, there were crowds of
spectators, and the chargé announced that if they wished to stage another tragedy he would be
the sponsor. »
2ND INTERLUDE / CONTINUING TURQUERIES
The five-act comédie-ballet by Molière (1622-1673) and Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687)
titled Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (The Bourgeois Gentleman) which was first staged on
October 14, 1670, reflected the European fashion, or tendency of les turqueries which was en
vogue in Europe in the 18th century. The work stemmed from the diplomatic scandal caused
by the Sultan Mehmed IV’s envoy Süleyman Aga (Müteferrika Süleyman) who, upon visiting
the court of Louis XIV in 1669, affirmed the superiority of the Ottoman court to the
French.1The ambassadorial report by Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi, the most prominent
Ottoman envoy of Sultan Ahmed III (r. 1703-1730) to Paris (1720-1721) is the earliest source
which informs the Ottoman world about "opera", and where "opera" is initially mentioned.
The Ottoman envoy of Sultan Mahmud I (r. 1730-1754) , Mustafa Hatti Efendi (~1680 –
~1760) who was sent on a mission to Vienna in 1748 attended operas there.
These spectacles were as follows: on July 14th La Diana oder Le pazzie di Diana, (composer
unknown), July 17th Alessandro nell' Indie by Georg Christoph Wagenseil (1715-1777), and
on July 29th of 1748, Mustafa Hatti attended the performance of a German comedy (Deutsche
Komödie). Another opera that Mustafa Hatti watched on August 20th was Orazio by
Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710-1736).
In 18th century opera, the Turqueries are embodied and culminated quintessentially in W.A.
Mozart’s (1756-1791) Die Entführung aus dem Seraglio (1782) and Zaide (1780) as well as in
works of Haydn (1732-1809) i.e. L’Incontro Improviviso (1775), and in works of C.W. Gluck
(1714-1787) i.e. Le cadi dupe (1761) or The Pilgrim of Mecca (1764) a.k.a. La rencontre
imprévue.
1786 The first opera performance – Palais de Suède
The earliest given opera performance in Istanbul is recorded to have taken place in the year
1786 – for Vienna the year of Nozze di Figaro (Da Ponte/Mozart, May 1st) and Cosa rara (Da
Ponte/Martini, November 17th) – and on the date of February 22nd in the Swedish Embassy,
by the then Swedish Ambassador Hrn. Von Haydenstamm. It is recorded to have been an
Italian opera piece with the embassy deputies themselves appearing in the roles of stand-ins.
Interestingly enough, the Ambassador himself had not only composed the opera, but also had
he conducted the orchestra (Magazin der Musik. Herausgegeben | von | Carl Friedrich
Cramer, | Professor in Kiel. | Zweyter Jahrgang. | Zweyte Hälfte. | 1786. | Hamburg | in der
Musicalischen Niederlage).
« Den 21sten November, 1786. | Nachrichten. Auszüge aus Briefen. » (pp. 915-991), darin pp.
956-957:
« 14) Aus einem Schreiben aus Pera, vom 17ten März, 1786. ) In dem Hotel des allhier
residirenden Königl. Schwedis. Gesandten, Hrn. von Haydenstamm, war am 22sten Febr. die
sehr seltene Fette der öffentlichen Vorstellung einer italiänischen Oper, wobey die Rolle bloß
von Standespersonen von den Gesandtschaften gespielt wurden. Die Frau von Haydenstamm
und die Tochter des Spanis. Gesandten, Hrn. von Bouligny, spielten die ersten
Damen=Rollen; der Spanis. Gesandte selbst, der Venetianis. Gesandschafts=Cavalier
Barbarini und die Hrn. Ristorini und Bianchi spielten die vornehmsten Rollen; die Soubrette
1
Unat, Osmanli Sefirleri ve Sefaretnameleri, p. 229. (see fn 15), Hazar, “17-18. yy Avrupa Kültür ve Sanatinda
Osmanli Tesirleri” (see fn 30)
wurde von einer gebornen Constantinopolitanerin, Sophia Michel vorgestellt. Der Schwedis.
Gesandte selbst hatte die Oper componirt, und dirigirte das [pag. 957] Orchester, der Kayserl.
Dollmetscher, Hr. von Raab, war Theatermeister, und der Italiänis. Cavalier Calogera,
Soufleur. Alle hier residirende Standespersonen, und selbst viele vornehme Türken, waren
gegenwärtig. »
3RD INTERLUDE
In the works of Turkish authors, this is regarded as the first encounter with opera until 1797,
when Selim III would invite an Italian opera troupe (from Pera?) to Topkapi.
Tarare in Paris / Axur in Vienna: Axur re d’Ormus, the dramma tragicomico by Lorenzo Da
Ponte and Salieri premiered in 1788 in Vienna, and this work signals the collaboration of Da
Ponte with Salieri in 1787. Axur is actually an Italian version of the opera Tarare, which
premiered on 8th June 1787 in Paris with a huge success. Salieri largely composed the opera
anew. Tarare, the five-act opera of Salieri, premiered in 1787 in Paris.
In the year 1791, Ebubekir Ratip Efendi (1749-1799) was posted as envoy to Vienna by Selim
III, and set off for his journey on 9th November 1791. On the way to Vienna, as he and his
retinue arrives in Temesvar on January 11th 1792 to make a stopover for four days, he
attended an opera (a tragedy). The research for exact data on this opera evening is in
continuation.
SULTAN III SELIM – DIPLOMATIC
OTTOMAN COURT
REFORMS AND THE ENTRANCE OF
OPERA
TO THE
In the eighteenth century, the age of Sultan Selim III (r.1789-1807) is simply a remarkable
one. And certainly one closely related to opera and diplomacy. What makes him and his age
noteworthy is firstly his reformist character which is embodied in his institution of essential
military, diplomatic and social reforms; and secondly his affinity to arts and his own artistry.
Artist in Own Right
Selim was a versatile artist: a talented and productive composer, a poet, and a patron of arts:
internationally acclaimed Turkish art historian Günsel Renda analyzes Selim’s III patronage
in Ottoman art in her latest article to be published in the coming volume of Don Juan Archiv
Wien:
« The reign of Sultan Selim III marks a turning point in Ottoman painting. Royal patronage
took a new form and imperial portraiture was an important factor in the adoption of European
style painting in the Empire. Sultan Selim’s patronage resulted in the production of a great
number of oil paintings not only portraits but also ceremonial scenes revealing his interest in
new media, new techniques and new functions of painting. »
He usually retired to his own « Composition Chamber » in Aynalikavak Pavillion, which was
an oase of inspiration for his music.
As composer, he created 16 different musical modes (makams), has 108 compositions known
to us, 40 of which are songs and 6 religious hymns.
He also was a prolific poet and wrote under the pseudonym Ilhami, and collected his poems in
six diwans.
Diplomatic Reforms
The fundamental reform of Selim III in diplomacy is his establishment of the first Ottoman
permanent embassies in the key Capitals of Europe: London (October 1793), Berlin (June
1795), Vienna (September 1795) and Paris (September 1796). This led to a profound change
in Ottoman diplomacy.
Opera at Court
Selim III was a music enthusiast, also of European music. He was the first Sultan to introduce
european stage art to the Ottoman Court: on 15th May of the year 1793, he attended in
Topkapi to what is regarded a European ballet performance, Frenk Rakkaslari (European
dancers) as named and recorded by his chronicler Ahmed Efendi. he invited (3rd May) in 1797
an (Italian) opera troupe to Topkapi. This is known in Ottoman History as the first opera at
the court. Selim’s III chronicler Ahmed Efendi reports of this occasion in his Rûzname, which
could be defined as the imperial diary covering Selim's III daily activities during the years
1791-1802.
OPERA, OTTOMANS AND DIPLOMATS: HIGHLIGHTS
The history of western performing arts in the Ottoman life covers a rather surprising timespan: from as early as 16th to 19th Centuries. Throughout this lengthy period, diplomatic corps
enjoy an influential role. The initial encounters of Ottoman envoys in European Capitals as
they were sent on mission in 18th Century constitute the introduction of this art form to the
Ottoman society, and their ambassadorial reports and chronicles provide the initiatory
evidential documents. The ambassadorial report by Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi, the
most prominent Ottoman envoy of Sultan Ahmed III (r. 1703-1730) to Paris (1720-1721) is
the earliest source which informs the Ottoman world about "opera", and where "opera" is
initially mentioned.
These ambassadorial reports/chronicles may also be said to have functioned as means of
motivation for the Ottoman Sultans to establish their own court theatres [app.140 years later]:
the first of such is the Dolmabahçe Court Theatre established in 1859 by Sultan Abdülmecid
(1823/1839-1861) and the second is the Yıldız Court Theatre established 1889 by of Sultan
Abdülhamid II ( 1842/1876-1909).
Selim III (r. 1789-1807), Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839), Abdülmecid (r. 1839-1861) and
Abdülhamid II (r.1876-1909) are the four Sultans who were renowned opera enthusiasts to be
engaged in this art form.
With 18th Century witnessing mostly Ottoman envoys' opera experiences in European
Capitals, in 19th Century the Ottoman Capital becomes vibrantly and frequently engaged in
opera: The following three Sultan eras and a few noteworthy examples within will explain:
Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839)
In his period, the interest in theatre grew. It is also in his period and with his initiative that in
1828 Giuseppe Donizetti came to Istanbul to establish a military band. Metin And conveys us
the information from a French magazine “Revue du Theatre, 1836 / VII”, which reports that
Mahmud II “in 1836 ordered for the Court library 500 theatre texts; of them 40 tragedies, 50
dramas, 30 comedies and 280 vaudevilles” (And 1989: 25).
Abdülmecid (r. 1839-1861)
The first libretto published in Ottoman-Turkish is Gaetano Donizetti's Belisario (Libretto by
Salvatore Cammarano; Venice carneval of February 1836) which was performed in the
1841/42 season in the Naum Theatre in Pera: this is the diplomatic quarter of Konstantiniyye;
The Turkish name of Pera, Beyoğlu, comes originally from the Turkicized form of Bailo,
which stands for the Venetian Ambassador in Konstantiniyye. The Bailo’s residence was the
most grandiose structure in this quarter, the Il Palazzo Venezia. The name originates from Bey
Oğlu (literally Son of Governor) and was particularly used by the Turks to describe Alvise
Luigi Giritti, son of Andrea Giritti (1503), the Venetian Bailo during the reign of Süleyman
the Magnificent (r. 1520-66). With the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 the European
presence in Pera did not end. During 17th, 18th and 19th centuries it was again home to many
European embassies, especially along the Grande Rue de Péra (today Istiklal Avenue). Verdi's
Il Trovatore (Libretto by Salvatore Cammarano; Rome, January 1853) was staged in the same
year in the Naum Theatre even before its French debut performance in Paris (1857).
First Libretto in Ottoman Turkish and an Ambassador: The first stage piece written in
Ottoman Turkish is a libretto, with Sevengil’s words an “opera livre”, and written by
Hayrullah Efendi (1817-1866), a physician of the Tanzimat Period (Reformation 1839-1876),
one of the prominent officials of the Tanzimat Period and a historian, who also was an
ambassador to Persia (1865-1866). The libretto is titled Hikâye-i Ibrahim Paşa be-Ibrahim-i
Gülşenî (The Story of Ibrahim Pasha and Ibrahim Gülşenî), and was written around 1844,
only two years after the translation to Ottoman Turkish of the libretto of Belisario in 1842.
Hikâye-i Ibrahim Paşa be-Ibrahim-i Gülşenî was neither staged nor printed. (Sevengil
1969:69)
Bosco Theatre (1840-1844) and Naum Theatres (1844-47 and 1848-1870): The theatre that
the Italian illusionist Giovanni Bartolomeo Bosco founded in Beyoglu in 1840 was the basis
for the Naum Theatre to follow, which was the “home” of Italian opera and theatre (And
1989: 31). Mihail Naum undertook the theatre and founded his Naum Theatre, which was an
important époque in the theatre of Tanzimat Period, and which served the dispersion of operagoing for 25 years. Mihail Naum renovated the theatre and opened it in 1844: Lucrezia Borgia
was the first opera to be performed (29th December 1844) by the Italian actors commissioned
by Naum (Sevengil 1969:26). Naum’s first theatre burned down in the 1846 Beyoglu Fire,
which led Naum to rebuild his theatre anew, this time with support from foreign embassies,
and also from the Sultan. The second Naum Theatre premiered with Macbeth on 4th October
1848 (Sevengil 1969:29).
Dolmabahçe Court Theatre: Sultan Abdülmecid established the first Imperial theatre of the
Ottoman Court in opposite of the Dolmabahçe Palace in 1859. According to Sevengil, one of
the major reasons might have been the Sultan’s wish “that the Ottoman Court should not be
lesser glamorous than the European Courts”; an Imperial theatre to be established not only
would “enrich the Ottoman Sultan’s Court, but also this would help the dispersion of opera
and theatre”. Sevengil underlines that Dolmabahçe Court Theatre was the first theatre house
built by the Imperial state; the second would be built in Bursa (1879), and the third in the
same year in Adana (Sevengil 1962:19).
Abdülhamid II (r.1876-1909)
Yıldız Court Theatre: The second court theatre was established by Sultan Abdülhamid II in
1889. Sevengil provides detailed description and data on this second Ottoman court theatre: It
was built in the area of the Yildiz Palace where Abdülhamid II preferred to spend his years.
The Sultan hosts the German Emperor Wilhelm II in the Yildiz Palace Theatre in 1889. It was
customary to include an opera evening in the hosting program during the state visits of the
foreign heads of state. During Abdülaziz’ reign, opera evenings in the Naum Theare served to
this custom; during the reign of Abdülhamid II, members of foreign ruling dynasties were
continually invited to Yıldız Court Theatre. Abdülhamid II also established an opera/operette
ensemble composed of Italian artists, which, beginning with 1892-93 season, performed
regularly for fifteen years. Sevengil quotes Ayşe Osmanoglu, Abdülhamid II’s daughter, who
in her memoirs tells that the most frequently performed works were “Traviata, Troubadour,
Bal Masqué, Barbier de Seville, La Fille de Regiment, Fra diavolo, Mascotte and La Belle
Hellene. These operas were named differently in the Court” (Sevengil 1962:122):
[La] Traviata – Madam Kamelya
[The] Troubadour – Demirci Operasi (the Blacksmith’s Opera)
Barbier de Seville – Berber Operasi (Barber’s Opera)
Bal Masqué – Maskeli Opera (The Masked Opera)
Fra diavolo – Haydut Operasi (The Bandit’s Opera)
La Fille de Regiment – Asker Kız Operasi (The Soldier Girl’s Opera)
La Belle Hellene – Çoban Operasi (Shepherd’s Opera)
Rigoletto – Kral Kız Operasi (King Girl’s Opera)
Mascotte – Maskot
III. Further Prospectives
The results and the outcome of the first year of this on-going research are already presented at
the Vienna symposium on 25-26 April 2008, and will be published in Fall 2008 in the coming
volume of the Don Juan Archiv Wien featuring the 2008 symposia proceedings. The research
is prospected to conclude by the end of 2009 with a forthcoming volume to be published by
the Don Juan Archiv Wien.
As part of the long-termed themes of the Don Juan Archiv research fields, the four themewords “opera”, “Turkey”, “Ottoman” and “Habsburg” yield to future research interest, which
are formulated as follows:
CULTURAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND THE HABSBURG STATES
Background: It is not all about coffee, croissant and the Second Siege of Vienna. The mostly
controversial relation of the two empires that is often full of conflicts also do cover many
decades of cultural exchange, fundamentally through diplomacy; thus through their envoys
and ambassadors.
Fact: Metin And’s research in the journal The Levant Herald (Issue 1st November 1869)
proves that in the year 1868, Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph I (r. 1848-1916), on his
visit to the Ottoman Empire, went to Naum Theatre and watched a performance for half an
hour. He was accompanied by Baron Prokesch von Osten (1795-1876), the renowned
Austrian internuntius and ambassador in Konstantiniyye between the years 1856-1872.
Research Theme: Staging Turkishness: Ottomans and Turkishness on the Habsburg Theatre
and Opera Stages in the eighteenth century in context of Cultural-Diplomatic Relations.
TURKISH OPERA AND OPERA IN TURKEY
Background: Although sounding alike, these two phrases above differ entirely from each
other. When speaking of opera in Turkey, we speak of the opera as it started in the Ottoman
times, as the research suggests. Whereas when speaking of Turkish opera, we refer to
authentic Turkish opera; the opera purely “Made in Turkey”, as institutionalized with the
grounding of Turkish Republic (1923) and originated by commission of Mustafa Kemal
Atatürk.
Fact: The first Turkish opera work Özsoy is composed on commission of Atatürk by Turkish
composer and ethnomusicologist Ahmet Adnan Saygun (1907-1991) who belongs to the
Turkish Five, the five pioneers of classical music in Turkey. The libretto is by Münir Hayri
Egeli (1904-1970). It premiered in Ankara in Halkevi (Volkshaus) on 19th June 1934, before
the presences of Atatürk and Riza Sah Pehlevi, on the occasion of the state visit of Riza Sah
Pehlevi, the Sah of Iran. Özsoy is a three-act opera, with twelve scenes.
Research Theme: A Critical History of Opera in Turkey with a Portrayal of Turkish opera
works.
FEMALE GRANDEUR AND OPERATIC PERFORMANCE
Background: In the Muslim Ottoman society, it was religiously forbidden for women to
appear as actresses on stage. The first female stage performers in the Ottoman society were
from among the non-Muslim sections of the society. This social convention was also valid in
the very early years of the Turkish Republic; until the first Turkish female stage performers
broke these taboos for rather high costs. This was also valid for opera practice; and thus is the
essence of this research theme: the necessity to look at the female side of opera in Turkey; a
country that raised highly impressive voices for its opera stage.
Fact: The first Muslim female actress to appear on stage was Afife Jale (1902-1941), who
made her debut as late as 1920. The first Turkish female opera singer was Semiha Berksoy
(1910-2004), who was also a painter, and an internationally acclaimed artist. After her first
public recital in Istanbul (1929) where she sang Chanson Endu from Rimsky-Korsakov’s
Sadko (1895-1896) and Mussetta’s Aria from Puccini’s La Bohème (1896) with the
accompaniment of “Turkish Five” composer Cemal Reşit Rey (1904-1985), she made her
debut as Ayşim in Özsoy in 1934. She was also the first Turkish female opera singer to sing in
Europe (Berlin, 1939, as Ariadne in Ariadne auf Naxos- R. Strauss), and in this way perhaps
the role model for Leyla Gencer (1928-2008) a.k.a. La Diva Turca, who would build up her
“queendom” through a glorious international career in Milan’s Teatro alla Scala as of the
fifties. Her Austrian debut was 1957 in Vienna, at the Wiener Staatsoper on 17th and 20th
June with Verdi’s La Traviata as Violetta under Herbert von Karajan. Second time in Vienna
was in 1961 on 7th April with Puccini’s Tosca as Tosca under Berislav Klobucar. Then in
1961 in the Salzburger Festspiele she performed on the dates of 9th, 15th, 24th, 29th August
with Verdi’s Simon Boccanegra as Maria Boccanegra under Gianandrea Gavazzeni. Her last
stage appearance in Austria was in 1962, again in Wiener Staatsoper. On 15th November she
sang Verdi’s Don Carlo as Elisabetta di Valois, and on 20th November Un Ballo in Maschera
as Amelia.
A Pearl on Turkish Opera Stage after La Gencer
Zehra Yildiz (1956-1997): the late Turkish soprano Zehra Yıldız certainly deserves to be
mentioned in this section, for her outstanding career, and also for her unfortunate and
untimely loss in the age of 41. Her first debut was in 1982 with J. Strauss II’s Eine Nacht in
Venedig (Berlin 1883) as Barbara at the Istanbul State Opera and Ballet, and her final stage
appearance was with Beethoven’s Fidelio as Leonore in Heidelberg Opera on 9th December
1997, only three days prior to her death on 12th December.
Research Theme: The First Female Opera Singers in Turkey: A History of Female Presence in
Opera in Turkey/Turkish Opera and Its Reception.
“It is truly extraordinary to bring together the high arts of opera and diplomacy”.