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European Ambassadors as Cultural Avantgarde in Constantinople/Konstantiniyye This is a project on the cultural influences of the diplomatic relations between the Ottoman Empire and the European Powers, and it focuses on the eighteenth century, although covering in general sixteenth, seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. It endeavours to illustrate the extent to which and the dimensions of the cultural influence of the European diplomatic missions on the cultural life of the Ottoman Istanbul, through evidence tracing the earliest opera practice by European troupes in the Capital. The major motivation for this research is a fascinating discovery in the Ottoman history: it was the Swedish embassy that hosted and staged the first opera performance known in Istanbul, the year was 1786. This information drove the inspiration for us to undertake research on opera and diplomacy in Ottoman history. As the research continued, further inspiring findings were encountered: this time it was the Venetian community that staged the first ballet performance in Istanbul, what is interesting here is, the year was 1524; decades before the academically accepted origins of ballet in 1581 in France. With these significant pieces of information, we have come to assume that the other European diplomatic missions in Istanbul may also have given opera performances or have invited from Europe opera troupes to perform in the embassies. The above-mentioned information and this assumption have been the driving forces of this research. Therefore the aim is to remap the theatrical side of the cultural relations between Ottoman Empire and the European powers in the eighteenth century through the bilateral diplomacy. The project is composed of four fundamental constituents and commences with a portrayal of Sultan Selim III with a focus on his reforms in diplomacy. The second of these constituents concerns itself with the Ottoman ambassadors and envoys in the eighteenth century Europe together with the sefâretnames (ambassadorial reports) of the Ottoman envoys and the cultural and artistic aspects to it. The following constituent engages itself with the European side of the story and looks at the European envoys and ambassadors in the eighteenth century Ottoman Capital; with a focus on their influences on the cultural and arts scene of Istanbul of the time. In the final section, the project looks at the relationship between opera and Ottomans from the early to mid-nineteenth century. European Ambassadors as Cultural Avantgarde in Constantinople/Konstantiniyye . 1 I. Europäische Basis-Daten .................................................................................... 3 Rulers ................................................................................................................. 3 Ambassadors ...................................................................................................... 3 Ambassadors' operas .......................................................................................... 6 II. In the Sultan's Capital ........................................................................................ 9 Three Ambassadors’ Performances in Constantinople 1524 - 1665 - 1786 ....... 9 Sultan III Selim – Diplomatic reforms and the entrance of Opera to the Ottoman Court ................................................................................................. 12 Opera, Ottomans and Diplomats: Highlights ................................................... 13 III. Further Prospectives ....................................................................................... 15 Cultural Relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg States ..... 15 Turkish Opera and Opera in Turkey ................................................................ 15 Female Grandeur and Operatic Performance ................................................... 16 European Ambassadors as Cultural Avantgarde in Constantinople/Konstantiniyye . 1 I. Europäische Basis-Daten .................................................................................... 3 Rulers ................................................................................................................. 3 Osmanlı or Ottoman, the Imperial House of Osman ...................................... 3 The three Reformer Sultans............................................................................ 3 Ottoman and European Rulers Index ............................................................. 3 Ambassadors ...................................................................................................... 3 On Collecting Data ......................................................................................... 5 A risky job – To Layout History .................................................................... 5 The Table of Ottoman-European Diplomats .................................................. 5 Ambassadors' operas .......................................................................................... 6 1. ..................................................................................................................... 6 2. ..................................................................................................................... 7 The Table of Diplomats' Operas..................................................................... 8 II. In the Sultan's Capital ........................................................................................ 9 Three Ambassadors’ Performances in Constantinople 1524 - 1665 - 1786 ....... 9 1524 The Earliest 'Ballet' Performance – Palazzo Venezia......................... 9 1st Interlude ............................................................................................... 10 1665 A Performance by the Capuchins – Palais de France ......................... 10 2nd Interlude .............................................................................................. 11 1786 The first opera performance – Palais de Suède ................................ 11 3rd Interlude .............................................................................................. 12 Sultan III Selim – Diplomatic reforms and the entrance of Opera to the Otoman Court ................................................................................................................. 12 Artist in Own Right ...................................................................................... 12 Diplomatic Reforms ..................................................................................... 12 Opera at Court .............................................................................................. 13 Opera, Ottomans and Diplomats: Highlights ................................................... 13 Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) ........................................................................... 13 Abdülmecid (r. 1839-1861) .......................................................................... 13 Abdülhamid II (r.1876-1909) ....................................................................... 14 III. Further Prospectives ....................................................................................... 15 Cultural Relations between the Ottoman Empire and the Habsburg States ..... 15 Turkish Opera and Opera in Turkey ................................................................ 15 Female Grandeur and Operatic Performance ................................................... 16 I. Europäische Basis-Daten The three following parts, rulers, ambassadors and ambassadors’ operas are the three corners, or three “supporting pillars” of the research. These three pillars are the European basic data, which enable the research to develop; for without these basic data it would not be possible to conduct sound research on these two fields, opera and diplomacy. As we deal with the history of diplomacy and that of opera in Ottoman world and Europe, we necessarily must possess an overview of empires, kingdoms, states and their almighty rulers, as well as of our subject matter, the ambassadors who play a remarkable role in opera history. Therefore we present them as our “three supporting pillars”. These basic data are presented in three compilations conducted by Don Juan Archiv Wien, and provide scholars, researchers and the enthusiasts of the fields with the above-mentioned interrelations not only an “overview” of the relevance of diplomacy and opera in context of Ottoman and European history; but also as reference to further research. The compilations may also serve as source for further/other publications. RULERS This study registers in detail the Ottoman Sultans and the European rulers chronologically, and is meant to provide background and support for the projects “Diplomacy as Cultural Exchange” and “Ottoman Empire and European Theatre”. Osmanlı or Ottoman, the Imperial House of Osman The entire eighteenth century falls into the Stagnation Era (1683-1827) of the Ottoman Empire beginning with the defeat of the Second Siege of Vienna. But surprisingly, or contradictorily, this era is also when extensive reforms in various areas were instituted by certain extraordinary members of the House of Osman. The three Reformer Sultans Selim III (r. 1789-1807), Mahmut II (r. 1808-1839) and Abdülmecid I (r. 1839-1861) are mostly known as the reformer Sultans of the Ottoman dynasty, who implemented significant military, diplomatic, legal and social reforms. Nevertheless, a more important common characteristic of them was their affinity to musical-scenic arts. Selim III was a highly talented composer and poet and the first Sultan known to invite an opera troupe to the court. Mahmut II to establish the first military band except that of the Mehter, invited Giuseppe Donizetti, who established the first Ottoman orchestra and trained many musicians. His heir to the throne, Abdülmecid I, an advocate of reforms like his predecessor and father Mahmut II, was also a true enthusiast of classical music, theatre and opera, thus closely befriended with Giuseppe Donizetti, and was the founder of the first court theatre at the Dolmabahçe Palace (est. 1859). Ottoman and European Rulers Index We believe it is not possible to conduct sound research on theatre, opera or cultural history without having an overview of the historical facts of the era we analyze. Therefore, it was essential to map the Ottoman-European history through the rulers in history, so the Ottoman and European Rulers Index serve to this aim. AMBASSADORS The project also includes a section which enlists the register data of the Ottoman envoys and ambassadors in the 18th Century European states, and the European envoys and ambassadors in the 18th Century Ottoman Constantinople. This study maps the most essential data (as far as it is available) relevant to diplomats, data on the state and the regime they belong to, data on the rulers by whom and to whom the diplomats are sent on mission, the data on the diplomats themselves, their diplomatic title, place and duration of their residency, reason for their mission (where available), as well as the bibliographic data together with comments (where available) at the end. The bibliographical data lays out the key researchers, scholars and authors who wrote on Ottoman and European ambassadors, those we mostly benefited from in this study: Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (1833) , Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches I-X , vol. IX, has been for this study the key source, as Hammer-Purgstall is the first scholar who wrote as an eyewitness to mmm centuries, and as he provides the earliest source known to us on diplomatic registers of the Ottomans . Other authors and researchers are as follows: Tommaso Bertele (1932) bailos and ambassadors of the Venetian Republic in La Fulgida Porta between 15th-20th Centuries (until 1929) , Bertold Spuler (1936) European diplomats in Istanbul until the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739 Faik Reşit Unat (1946) Ottoman ambassadors to Asian and European States between 15th -20th Centuries until the establishment of permanent embassies in 1835, Ottoman ambassadors to Great Britain between 18th-20th Centuries and to Russia between 16th-19th Centuries, Russian envoys to the Sublime Porte between 15th-19th Centuries, British ambassadors in Istanbul between 16th-20th Centuries, Ottoman ambassadors to Persia between 16th -19th Centuries , Persian envoys to Istanbul between 16th-19th Centuries, Stanford Jay Shaw (1971) first Ottoman resident ambassadors under Selim III’s reign, Erwin Matsch (1986) diplomats of the Habsburg Monarchy / Austro-Hungarian Empire between 1720-1920 Michael Hochedlinger (1991), the French-Turkish relations between 1525-1792 Jean-Michel Casa (1995) French ambassadors to l’Empire Ottoman between 1525-1991 Eveline Markom (2001) Austrian diplomatic relations to the Ottoman Empire in 18th Century Marlies Hoenkamp-Mazgon (2002) Dutch diplomatic representatives in Turkey from 1612 until today, Dutch Consuls General in Istanbul from 1936 until today, Ottoman ambassadors and envoys in The Hague from 1855 until today Uygur Kocabasoglu (2004) British envoys, ambassadors and consuls in the Ottoman Empire between 1580-1900 Ömer Kürkçüoglu in Nuri Yurdusev (2004) Adoption of Ottoman Permanent Diplomacy under Selim III Alexander H. de Groot (2007) Political, Economical, Social and Cultural Relations of the Netherlands and Turkey between 16th-20th Centuries Sture Theolin (o.J..) Swedish envoys and ambassadors in the Ottoman Empire between 16301998 Karl Teply (o.J.) diplomats of the Habsburg Monarchy to the Sublime Porte between 16th-18th Centuries On Collecting Data Certainly there are also cases where we benefited from the friendly support of present-day foreign ministry archives, embassies in Ankara and consulates in Istanbul. These institutions were pleased to hear about and showed interest in this research, with only a few of them providing the complete list of their ambassadors in Istanbul. A risky job – To Layout History The research of European and Ottoman diplomats originally began with the focus of 18th Century, but as the research continued deeper, it became clear that it would be unfair to restrict the data only to the eighteenth and exclude the other centuries. Therefore, the layout of European-Ottoman diplomatic exchange has considerably expanded, as far as the research allowed. However, the extent of data differs from state to state; for instance, the diplomatic history of three Italian Republics Florence, Genoa, Venice in Istanbul dates back as far as the mid-fifteenth century (1444, 1451, 1453), whereas for Kingdom of Prussia, anf then Kingdom of Germany as well as Saxony, which also belonged to the Holy Roman Empire; only limited data starting with nineteenth century (1877) has been so far available. This might be considered to create a certain inconsistency; therefore dealing with the collected data in mapping the diplomatic history can be rather complex and demanding. The Table of Ottoman-European Diplomats This study comprises the compilation of all the European ambassadors on mission as well as the locations of the embassies during the 18th Century in the Capital of the Ottoman Empire, Data for the following states are already available: Republic of Florence (1444-1578), Republic of Genoa (1451-1704), Republic of Venice (1453 -1797), England (1506-1856), Spain (1519-2008), Holy Roman Empire (1521-1806), France (1525-2008), Netherlands (1612-1923), Sweden (1630-2008), Poland (1414-1790 and from 1700-1774), Russia (17011802), Romania (1859-2008), German Empire (1877-1918). Data collection for the states Denmark, Germany, Portugal and Switzerland is yet in progress. The study also covers the data for all Ottoman ambassadors in European Capitals including Russia and the Italian states in history, also covering the 18th Century. The following benchmark data are already available: Ottoman envoys sent to: Republic of Venice (14171720), Poland (1443-1778), Hungary (1443- ? )Republic of Florence (1487-?), Kingdom of Naples (1494-1741), Russia (1518-1833), Holy Roman Empire (1535-1806), Austrian Empire (1806-1867), Habsburg Monarchy (1867-1918); Austria (1918-2008) France (1559-1845), England (1619-1952), Netherlands (1629-1687), Sweden (1727-1731), Prussia (1763-1796), Spain (1649-1786). This two-faceted research and layout well gives way to a comparative angle within the study; thus it will be possible to make evaluations of the background of the political relations of Ottomans with European states. A survey of the diplomatic history of Ottomans as well as the European states will also therefore be possible to compare. Furthermore, it will also be possible to compare the eras of Ottoman Sultans and European Kaisers/Kings. Special emphasis is given to the embassies of the three emperors: 1. Those of the Sultan / Caliph’s, 2. Those of the Russian Tsar’s, 3. Those of the Holy Roman Emperor. Ottoman & Austrian Aspects of Diplomacy: It is about diplomacy which acted in the historical connection process of, or better to put it, in the approximation, the approaching of the two powers: the first document known as ambassadorial report in the Ottoman State is the report of Haci Zaganos (d. 1462) who was sent to Vienna in mid-fifteenth century, whereas the first Ottoman envoy to Vienna is officially known as Memiş Çavuş sent in 1535. (Faik Resit Unat, Osmanli Sefirleri ve Sefaretnameleri Ankara 1968, p.43) AMBASSADORS' OPERAS This constitutes perhaps the most crucial, even the central part of the entire project. It is the part where the two research fields of opera and diplomacy join together. The relevance and the relation of the opera works with diplomacy and diplomats are diverse: research shows not only that (European) ambassadors acted as impresarios, opera producers, artistic directors, and even as singers, actors and composers in history, but also that there are numerous opera and ballet pieces composed/performed to be dedicated to ambassadors. Therefore this study is the core of our research in diplomacy. With the study of Ambassadors’ Operas, Don Juan Archiv Wien is leading the undiscovered territory of opera and diplomacy in academia. This study will serve as a reference not only for repertoire research, but also for specific field research of opera and diplomacy. To obtain a scientific result of “ambassadors” and “opera”, initially information of all the italian operatic works which are related to ambassadors were searched and brought together from Claudio Sartori’s. I libretti italiani a stampa dalle origini fino al 1800. Con 16 Indici. (7 voll. Cuneo: Bertola & Locatelli, 1990-1994) This was done by a search in the digitalized Sartori-database of Don Juan Archiv Wien. In order to construct a scientific layout of Ambassadors’ Operas, it was also essential to categorize the existing information of the opera libretti; therefore new criteria were needed. So, the study is conducted in 32 criteria) which enable future researchers to examine the study in all aspects. 1. The 256 works in the table are staged in the following countries, cities and between the following years: Italy 222 during the period 1612-1798 Cities: Alessandria, Ancona, Arezzo, Benevento, Bergamo, Bologna, Brescia, Monferrato, Città di Salerno, Cortona, Crema, Cremona, Faenza, Ferrara, Firenze, Foligno, Genova, Livorno, Lucca, Lugo, Macerata, Mantova, Messina, Milano, Napoli, Padova, Palermo, Parma, Pavia, Pergola, Perugia, Piacenza, Reggio, Roma(*), Torino, Trieste, Velletri (in Roma), Venezia, Verona, Vicenza. Vatican 16 during the period 1610-1792 Portugal –Lisbon 7 during the period 1728-1799 Germany - Hamburg 1 in 1746 Spain -Madrid 1 in 1750 Austria-Vienna 2 during the period of 1726-1727 Great Britain-London 2 during the period 1710 and 1799 Belgium-Brussels 1 in 1728 Czech Republic-Prague 1 in 1730 Greece-Corfu 1 in 1790 Poland-Gdansk 1 in 1646 Russia-St. Petersburg 2 in 1788 and 1798 2. In the 256 works in the table the following historic states are represented through attribution to their ambassadors. Across each state, the number of the works associated by that state is denoted: A Ancona- Stati della Chiesa 1 Arezzo-Granducato di Toscana 1 B Bari / Padri Capuccini 1 Baviera/S.R.I. 1 Berna’ 1 Bologna-Stati della Chiesa 1 C Castelfranco Veneto/ Repubblica di Venezia 1 Città di Bologna 2 Comune di Macerata 1 Comune di Zagarolo 1 Comunita d’ Alessandria 1 Comunità di Piacenza 1 Comune di Livorno 1 Cortona /Toscana 1 D Ducato di Milano 4 Ducato di Modena e Reggio 5 Ducato di Parma e Piacenza 1 Ducato di Mantova 1 Ducato di Ferrara 2 F Faenza 2 Firenze/ Granducato di Toscana 4 Foligno-Stati della Chiesa 2 Francia 23 G Gli Stati Generali 1 Grande Bretagna 8 Granducato di Toscana 7 I Impero Ottomano 2 L M La Santa Ordine Di Gerusalemme 1 Malta 2 Monreal 1 O Ordine dei Minori Conventuali 2 Ordine di S. Stefano 1 P Polonia 6 Portogallo 18 R Regno di Napoli 10 Regno di Sardegna 1 Regno delle due Sicilie 11 Repubblica Cispadana 1 Repubblica di Francese 3 Repubblica di Genova 4 Repubblica di Lucca 3 Repubblica di Venezia 18 Russia 5 S Sassonia 2 Spagna 55 Svezia 2 S.R.I. 53 S.M.I.R.A. 3 Stati della Chiesa 8 The Table of Diplomats' Operas This tableau compiles operas which are performed in honour of, or in the presence of the diplomat/ambassador; there are also operas where an ambassador appears as a plot character, and also operas where ambassadors themselves appear as actors. The tableau enlists libretti information of Italian opera and ballet works which feature diplomats, namely ambassadors and ministers, and, as said, is based on Claudio Sartori’s Catalogue. The compilation covers a total of 256 opera and ballet works, with the initial item on the tableau dated 1615 and the final one dated 1799. The tableau opens with the researched keywords, and is divided into four sections as follows: Preambulante Commediante Teatrante Itinerante: This section compiles the opera/ballet works which are presented in the presence of an ambassador, and also incidences where an ambassador contributes as an actor himself. Ambasciatori/AmbasciatariciDedicatarij: This section compiles the opera/ballet works which are dedicated to ambassadors or which are performed in honour or in presence of the ambassadors. Ambasciatori Inpresarij is the section which features opera/ballet works where an ambassador acts as an impresario, an initiator, or a producer in the realization of the performance; so to say the works which are performed or produced with the “patronage” of ambassadors. Anbasciatori/Ambasciatrici Dramatis Personæ: This fourth section covers the opera/ballet works where an ambassador contributes as an actor and/or appears as a character in the plot. The tableau ends with an additional part which illustrates the operas (20) written in memory of Inês de Castro (1325-1355), the Galician noblewoman, daughter of Pedro Fernandez de Castro (n.s.), who came to Portugal on King Afonso IV (1291-1357) court as a princess’ (Constance of Castile, wife of prince Pedro) maid, steals the heart of the heir to the throne prince Pedro (later king Pedro I, 1320-1367/r.1357-1367), thus is unfortunately destined to be denounced all her life by the until he orders her death and has her murdered. Posthumously King Pedro I declared her his lawful wife, and therefore Queen of Portugal. Her tragic story immensely inspired playwrights, poets and composers. We employed currently 32 criteria to sort the information out featured in the table. These criteria analyze the following characteristics of the libretti prints: 01-02 Numbering & State of representation: The section and number of the work in the table, as well as the current and the old names of the country or state where performance took place 03 State represented: The represented country or state represented through the ambassador in question, the name and rank of the ambassador 04 Event and Dedication: The occasion for performance, dedication of the performance 05 Representation Info.: City, location, year as well as the impresario of the works 06 Opera/ Ballet: Title of the work, article to the title as well as the genre of the work 07 Artists: the artists, who created and produced the work including poet, composer, conductor, choreographer, composer of the ballet-music, stage designer and costume designer 08 Print Info.: City and year of print, as well as the printing house, and illustrator(s) where available 09-11a Bibliography: Bibliographical data of the libretti prints including Schatz number, Sartori number and the original Sartori file card II. In the Sultan's Capital This is where we take a close look at the relation of opera and diplomacy in Istanbul. The following three parts compose a summary of the history of opera in Ottoman Empire. The first of them brings together the earliest performances relevant to diplomacy in Ottoman history; the second one portrays the age of Sultan Selim III (1761/1789-1807/1808) and contextualizes Ottomans reception of opera with Selim III and the diplomacy in his era, and finally the third part sums up the linkages of Ottomans and opera. THREE AMBASSADORS’ PERFORMANCES IN CONSTANTINOPLE 1524 - 1665 - 1786 The three events which follow are significant and focal for our research interests; because they feature the firsts which we have come to find out so far: the first ballet performance, the first drama performance in the French Embassy, and the first opera performance in Ottoman Istanbul. The history of western performing arts in the Ottoman life covers a rather surprising timespan: from as early as 16th to 19th Centuries. Throughout this lengthy period, diplomatic corps enjoy an influential role. The initial encounters of Ottoman envoys in European Capitals as they were sent on mission in 18th Century constitute the introduction of this art form to the Ottoman society, and their ambassadorial reports and chronicles provide the initiatory evidential documents. 1524 The Earliest 'Ballet' Performance – Palazzo Venezia Metin And (1927-2008), doyen of performing arts studies in Turkish and internationally acclaimed performing arts historian, in his work The Italian Stage in Turkey, Turkey on the Italian Stage (Metis Publ. 1989) which, being published in both Turkish and Italian, remains an indispensable reference for Turkish theatre/opera researchers, gives us an account of a finding he encountered in a study on ballet history published in France by Ferdinando Reyna, Des Origines du Ballet, Paris 1955, p. 91). « En 1524, à Constantinople, la colonie vénitienne fit régler un étrange ballet : une jeune fille très belle, prisonnière de deux vieillards, invoquait désespérément la Mort : en dansant elle exprimait tout cela par le geste. Et la Mort venait, elle la touchait de sa faulx ; les vêtements de la jeune fille tombaient et elle restait nue, morte, enveloppée dans ses cheveux d’or. » As And also mentions, Reyna unfortunately does not provide the original source for this unique information. 1ST INTERLUDE / THE FIRST TURKISH THEMES ON EUROPEAN STAGES Turkish themes appear rather often in various repertoires and periods in theatrical history. One example is the compilation titled “Sultans on Opera Stage”, studied by Johannes Schweitzer. From Catalogo analitico “I Libretti Italiani a Stampa dalle Origini al 1800” of Claudio Sartori (Cuneo 1994), Schweitzer compiled the Italian libretto prints that bring out a “Sultan” as subject and cast. This study of Schweitzer introduces stage works with the following Sultans/Sultan figures: Osmano (Osman), Bajazet (Beyazit), Amurat II. (Murat II), Memete II.(Mehmet II), Solimano I. & II. (Süleyman I & II), Ibrahim, Selim I. & II. (Link to J. Schweitzer Table) Another example to the first Turkish themes on European Stages is provided by Stephan Schmuck, in his essay “From Sermon to Play: Literary Representations of ‘Turks’ in Renaissance England 1550-1625”. The essay investigates the figure of ‘Turks’ in English literary and dramatic texts. One of the earliest of such is that of John Fox, titled The Worthy Enterprise of John Fox, in Delivering 266 Christians Out of the Captivity of the Turks, and is dated back to 1579. There is in fact vast bibliographical material on Turkish themes in European art. Michael Hüttler has conducted two bibliographical studies on literature collection of opera / travel / cultural exchange between Habsburg Monarchy and Ottoman Empire in 18th Century as well as of Turkish themes in the opera and drama of the 17th and 18th Centuries. (Link to M.Hüttler Bibliography) 1665 A Performance by the Capuchins – Palais de France Acclaimed Austrian theatre scholar Walter Puchner, renowned for his research on 17th century religious and barock drama, in his latest article to be published in the coming volume of Don Juan Archiv Wien « European Drama and Theatre in Seventeenth-Century Istanbul », shares with the reader an astoundingly essential discovery; a drama performance in the French Embassy in 1665, evidently the first performance known to be realized in the French Embassy in Istanbul: « There is evidence of a theatrical production by the capuchins in Galata, Constantinople, in a document of 1665. Unlike the Jesuit plays, the event did not happen in the church, but in the French Embassy. (…) The Capuchins performed the religious drama Le Baptesme de Saint Genest, an adaptation of Jean Rotrou’s (1609-1650) tragedy about the story of the mimemartyr. (…) The central role in this St. Genesius play, the Roman Emperor Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus, was played by the son of the chargé d’affaires of the French embassy, François Roboly (d. 1689). The performance was very successful, there were crowds of spectators, and the chargé announced that if they wished to stage another tragedy he would be the sponsor. » 2ND INTERLUDE / CONTINUING TURQUERIES The five-act comédie-ballet by Molière (1622-1673) and Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687) titled Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme (The Bourgeois Gentleman) which was first staged on October 14, 1670, reflected the European fashion, or tendency of les turqueries which was en vogue in Europe in the 18th century. The work stemmed from the diplomatic scandal caused by the Sultan Mehmed IV’s envoy Süleyman Aga (Müteferrika Süleyman) who, upon visiting the court of Louis XIV in 1669, affirmed the superiority of the Ottoman court to the French.1The ambassadorial report by Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi, the most prominent Ottoman envoy of Sultan Ahmed III (r. 1703-1730) to Paris (1720-1721) is the earliest source which informs the Ottoman world about "opera", and where "opera" is initially mentioned. The Ottoman envoy of Sultan Mahmud I (r. 1730-1754) , Mustafa Hatti Efendi (~1680 – ~1760) who was sent on a mission to Vienna in 1748 attended operas there. These spectacles were as follows: on July 14th La Diana oder Le pazzie di Diana, (composer unknown), July 17th Alessandro nell' Indie by Georg Christoph Wagenseil (1715-1777), and on July 29th of 1748, Mustafa Hatti attended the performance of a German comedy (Deutsche Komödie). Another opera that Mustafa Hatti watched on August 20th was Orazio by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi (1710-1736). In 18th century opera, the Turqueries are embodied and culminated quintessentially in W.A. Mozart’s (1756-1791) Die Entführung aus dem Seraglio (1782) and Zaide (1780) as well as in works of Haydn (1732-1809) i.e. L’Incontro Improviviso (1775), and in works of C.W. Gluck (1714-1787) i.e. Le cadi dupe (1761) or The Pilgrim of Mecca (1764) a.k.a. La rencontre imprévue. 1786 The first opera performance – Palais de Suède The earliest given opera performance in Istanbul is recorded to have taken place in the year 1786 – for Vienna the year of Nozze di Figaro (Da Ponte/Mozart, May 1st) and Cosa rara (Da Ponte/Martini, November 17th) – and on the date of February 22nd in the Swedish Embassy, by the then Swedish Ambassador Hrn. Von Haydenstamm. It is recorded to have been an Italian opera piece with the embassy deputies themselves appearing in the roles of stand-ins. Interestingly enough, the Ambassador himself had not only composed the opera, but also had he conducted the orchestra (Magazin der Musik. Herausgegeben | von | Carl Friedrich Cramer, | Professor in Kiel. | Zweyter Jahrgang. | Zweyte Hälfte. | 1786. | Hamburg | in der Musicalischen Niederlage). « Den 21sten November, 1786. | Nachrichten. Auszüge aus Briefen. » (pp. 915-991), darin pp. 956-957: « 14) Aus einem Schreiben aus Pera, vom 17ten März, 1786. ) In dem Hotel des allhier residirenden Königl. Schwedis. Gesandten, Hrn. von Haydenstamm, war am 22sten Febr. die sehr seltene Fette der öffentlichen Vorstellung einer italiänischen Oper, wobey die Rolle bloß von Standespersonen von den Gesandtschaften gespielt wurden. Die Frau von Haydenstamm und die Tochter des Spanis. Gesandten, Hrn. von Bouligny, spielten die ersten Damen=Rollen; der Spanis. Gesandte selbst, der Venetianis. Gesandschafts=Cavalier Barbarini und die Hrn. Ristorini und Bianchi spielten die vornehmsten Rollen; die Soubrette 1 Unat, Osmanli Sefirleri ve Sefaretnameleri, p. 229. (see fn 15), Hazar, “17-18. yy Avrupa Kültür ve Sanatinda Osmanli Tesirleri” (see fn 30) wurde von einer gebornen Constantinopolitanerin, Sophia Michel vorgestellt. Der Schwedis. Gesandte selbst hatte die Oper componirt, und dirigirte das [pag. 957] Orchester, der Kayserl. Dollmetscher, Hr. von Raab, war Theatermeister, und der Italiänis. Cavalier Calogera, Soufleur. Alle hier residirende Standespersonen, und selbst viele vornehme Türken, waren gegenwärtig. » 3RD INTERLUDE In the works of Turkish authors, this is regarded as the first encounter with opera until 1797, when Selim III would invite an Italian opera troupe (from Pera?) to Topkapi. Tarare in Paris / Axur in Vienna: Axur re d’Ormus, the dramma tragicomico by Lorenzo Da Ponte and Salieri premiered in 1788 in Vienna, and this work signals the collaboration of Da Ponte with Salieri in 1787. Axur is actually an Italian version of the opera Tarare, which premiered on 8th June 1787 in Paris with a huge success. Salieri largely composed the opera anew. Tarare, the five-act opera of Salieri, premiered in 1787 in Paris. In the year 1791, Ebubekir Ratip Efendi (1749-1799) was posted as envoy to Vienna by Selim III, and set off for his journey on 9th November 1791. On the way to Vienna, as he and his retinue arrives in Temesvar on January 11th 1792 to make a stopover for four days, he attended an opera (a tragedy). The research for exact data on this opera evening is in continuation. SULTAN III SELIM – DIPLOMATIC OTTOMAN COURT REFORMS AND THE ENTRANCE OF OPERA TO THE In the eighteenth century, the age of Sultan Selim III (r.1789-1807) is simply a remarkable one. And certainly one closely related to opera and diplomacy. What makes him and his age noteworthy is firstly his reformist character which is embodied in his institution of essential military, diplomatic and social reforms; and secondly his affinity to arts and his own artistry. Artist in Own Right Selim was a versatile artist: a talented and productive composer, a poet, and a patron of arts: internationally acclaimed Turkish art historian Günsel Renda analyzes Selim’s III patronage in Ottoman art in her latest article to be published in the coming volume of Don Juan Archiv Wien: « The reign of Sultan Selim III marks a turning point in Ottoman painting. Royal patronage took a new form and imperial portraiture was an important factor in the adoption of European style painting in the Empire. Sultan Selim’s patronage resulted in the production of a great number of oil paintings not only portraits but also ceremonial scenes revealing his interest in new media, new techniques and new functions of painting. » He usually retired to his own « Composition Chamber » in Aynalikavak Pavillion, which was an oase of inspiration for his music. As composer, he created 16 different musical modes (makams), has 108 compositions known to us, 40 of which are songs and 6 religious hymns. He also was a prolific poet and wrote under the pseudonym Ilhami, and collected his poems in six diwans. Diplomatic Reforms The fundamental reform of Selim III in diplomacy is his establishment of the first Ottoman permanent embassies in the key Capitals of Europe: London (October 1793), Berlin (June 1795), Vienna (September 1795) and Paris (September 1796). This led to a profound change in Ottoman diplomacy. Opera at Court Selim III was a music enthusiast, also of European music. He was the first Sultan to introduce european stage art to the Ottoman Court: on 15th May of the year 1793, he attended in Topkapi to what is regarded a European ballet performance, Frenk Rakkaslari (European dancers) as named and recorded by his chronicler Ahmed Efendi. he invited (3rd May) in 1797 an (Italian) opera troupe to Topkapi. This is known in Ottoman History as the first opera at the court. Selim’s III chronicler Ahmed Efendi reports of this occasion in his Rûzname, which could be defined as the imperial diary covering Selim's III daily activities during the years 1791-1802. OPERA, OTTOMANS AND DIPLOMATS: HIGHLIGHTS The history of western performing arts in the Ottoman life covers a rather surprising timespan: from as early as 16th to 19th Centuries. Throughout this lengthy period, diplomatic corps enjoy an influential role. The initial encounters of Ottoman envoys in European Capitals as they were sent on mission in 18th Century constitute the introduction of this art form to the Ottoman society, and their ambassadorial reports and chronicles provide the initiatory evidential documents. The ambassadorial report by Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmet Efendi, the most prominent Ottoman envoy of Sultan Ahmed III (r. 1703-1730) to Paris (1720-1721) is the earliest source which informs the Ottoman world about "opera", and where "opera" is initially mentioned. These ambassadorial reports/chronicles may also be said to have functioned as means of motivation for the Ottoman Sultans to establish their own court theatres [app.140 years later]: the first of such is the Dolmabahçe Court Theatre established in 1859 by Sultan Abdülmecid (1823/1839-1861) and the second is the Yıldız Court Theatre established 1889 by of Sultan Abdülhamid II ( 1842/1876-1909). Selim III (r. 1789-1807), Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839), Abdülmecid (r. 1839-1861) and Abdülhamid II (r.1876-1909) are the four Sultans who were renowned opera enthusiasts to be engaged in this art form. With 18th Century witnessing mostly Ottoman envoys' opera experiences in European Capitals, in 19th Century the Ottoman Capital becomes vibrantly and frequently engaged in opera: The following three Sultan eras and a few noteworthy examples within will explain: Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839) In his period, the interest in theatre grew. It is also in his period and with his initiative that in 1828 Giuseppe Donizetti came to Istanbul to establish a military band. Metin And conveys us the information from a French magazine “Revue du Theatre, 1836 / VII”, which reports that Mahmud II “in 1836 ordered for the Court library 500 theatre texts; of them 40 tragedies, 50 dramas, 30 comedies and 280 vaudevilles” (And 1989: 25). Abdülmecid (r. 1839-1861) The first libretto published in Ottoman-Turkish is Gaetano Donizetti's Belisario (Libretto by Salvatore Cammarano; Venice carneval of February 1836) which was performed in the 1841/42 season in the Naum Theatre in Pera: this is the diplomatic quarter of Konstantiniyye; The Turkish name of Pera, Beyoğlu, comes originally from the Turkicized form of Bailo, which stands for the Venetian Ambassador in Konstantiniyye. The Bailo’s residence was the most grandiose structure in this quarter, the Il Palazzo Venezia. The name originates from Bey Oğlu (literally Son of Governor) and was particularly used by the Turks to describe Alvise Luigi Giritti, son of Andrea Giritti (1503), the Venetian Bailo during the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-66). With the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 the European presence in Pera did not end. During 17th, 18th and 19th centuries it was again home to many European embassies, especially along the Grande Rue de Péra (today Istiklal Avenue). Verdi's Il Trovatore (Libretto by Salvatore Cammarano; Rome, January 1853) was staged in the same year in the Naum Theatre even before its French debut performance in Paris (1857). First Libretto in Ottoman Turkish and an Ambassador: The first stage piece written in Ottoman Turkish is a libretto, with Sevengil’s words an “opera livre”, and written by Hayrullah Efendi (1817-1866), a physician of the Tanzimat Period (Reformation 1839-1876), one of the prominent officials of the Tanzimat Period and a historian, who also was an ambassador to Persia (1865-1866). The libretto is titled Hikâye-i Ibrahim Paşa be-Ibrahim-i Gülşenî (The Story of Ibrahim Pasha and Ibrahim Gülşenî), and was written around 1844, only two years after the translation to Ottoman Turkish of the libretto of Belisario in 1842. Hikâye-i Ibrahim Paşa be-Ibrahim-i Gülşenî was neither staged nor printed. (Sevengil 1969:69) Bosco Theatre (1840-1844) and Naum Theatres (1844-47 and 1848-1870): The theatre that the Italian illusionist Giovanni Bartolomeo Bosco founded in Beyoglu in 1840 was the basis for the Naum Theatre to follow, which was the “home” of Italian opera and theatre (And 1989: 31). Mihail Naum undertook the theatre and founded his Naum Theatre, which was an important époque in the theatre of Tanzimat Period, and which served the dispersion of operagoing for 25 years. Mihail Naum renovated the theatre and opened it in 1844: Lucrezia Borgia was the first opera to be performed (29th December 1844) by the Italian actors commissioned by Naum (Sevengil 1969:26). Naum’s first theatre burned down in the 1846 Beyoglu Fire, which led Naum to rebuild his theatre anew, this time with support from foreign embassies, and also from the Sultan. The second Naum Theatre premiered with Macbeth on 4th October 1848 (Sevengil 1969:29). Dolmabahçe Court Theatre: Sultan Abdülmecid established the first Imperial theatre of the Ottoman Court in opposite of the Dolmabahçe Palace in 1859. According to Sevengil, one of the major reasons might have been the Sultan’s wish “that the Ottoman Court should not be lesser glamorous than the European Courts”; an Imperial theatre to be established not only would “enrich the Ottoman Sultan’s Court, but also this would help the dispersion of opera and theatre”. Sevengil underlines that Dolmabahçe Court Theatre was the first theatre house built by the Imperial state; the second would be built in Bursa (1879), and the third in the same year in Adana (Sevengil 1962:19). Abdülhamid II (r.1876-1909) Yıldız Court Theatre: The second court theatre was established by Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1889. Sevengil provides detailed description and data on this second Ottoman court theatre: It was built in the area of the Yildiz Palace where Abdülhamid II preferred to spend his years. The Sultan hosts the German Emperor Wilhelm II in the Yildiz Palace Theatre in 1889. It was customary to include an opera evening in the hosting program during the state visits of the foreign heads of state. During Abdülaziz’ reign, opera evenings in the Naum Theare served to this custom; during the reign of Abdülhamid II, members of foreign ruling dynasties were continually invited to Yıldız Court Theatre. Abdülhamid II also established an opera/operette ensemble composed of Italian artists, which, beginning with 1892-93 season, performed regularly for fifteen years. Sevengil quotes Ayşe Osmanoglu, Abdülhamid II’s daughter, who in her memoirs tells that the most frequently performed works were “Traviata, Troubadour, Bal Masqué, Barbier de Seville, La Fille de Regiment, Fra diavolo, Mascotte and La Belle Hellene. These operas were named differently in the Court” (Sevengil 1962:122): [La] Traviata – Madam Kamelya [The] Troubadour – Demirci Operasi (the Blacksmith’s Opera) Barbier de Seville – Berber Operasi (Barber’s Opera) Bal Masqué – Maskeli Opera (The Masked Opera) Fra diavolo – Haydut Operasi (The Bandit’s Opera) La Fille de Regiment – Asker Kız Operasi (The Soldier Girl’s Opera) La Belle Hellene – Çoban Operasi (Shepherd’s Opera) Rigoletto – Kral Kız Operasi (King Girl’s Opera) Mascotte – Maskot III. Further Prospectives The results and the outcome of the first year of this on-going research are already presented at the Vienna symposium on 25-26 April 2008, and will be published in Fall 2008 in the coming volume of the Don Juan Archiv Wien featuring the 2008 symposia proceedings. The research is prospected to conclude by the end of 2009 with a forthcoming volume to be published by the Don Juan Archiv Wien. As part of the long-termed themes of the Don Juan Archiv research fields, the four themewords “opera”, “Turkey”, “Ottoman” and “Habsburg” yield to future research interest, which are formulated as follows: CULTURAL RELATIONS BETWEEN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND THE HABSBURG STATES Background: It is not all about coffee, croissant and the Second Siege of Vienna. The mostly controversial relation of the two empires that is often full of conflicts also do cover many decades of cultural exchange, fundamentally through diplomacy; thus through their envoys and ambassadors. Fact: Metin And’s research in the journal The Levant Herald (Issue 1st November 1869) proves that in the year 1868, Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph I (r. 1848-1916), on his visit to the Ottoman Empire, went to Naum Theatre and watched a performance for half an hour. He was accompanied by Baron Prokesch von Osten (1795-1876), the renowned Austrian internuntius and ambassador in Konstantiniyye between the years 1856-1872. Research Theme: Staging Turkishness: Ottomans and Turkishness on the Habsburg Theatre and Opera Stages in the eighteenth century in context of Cultural-Diplomatic Relations. TURKISH OPERA AND OPERA IN TURKEY Background: Although sounding alike, these two phrases above differ entirely from each other. When speaking of opera in Turkey, we speak of the opera as it started in the Ottoman times, as the research suggests. Whereas when speaking of Turkish opera, we refer to authentic Turkish opera; the opera purely “Made in Turkey”, as institutionalized with the grounding of Turkish Republic (1923) and originated by commission of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Fact: The first Turkish opera work Özsoy is composed on commission of Atatürk by Turkish composer and ethnomusicologist Ahmet Adnan Saygun (1907-1991) who belongs to the Turkish Five, the five pioneers of classical music in Turkey. The libretto is by Münir Hayri Egeli (1904-1970). It premiered in Ankara in Halkevi (Volkshaus) on 19th June 1934, before the presences of Atatürk and Riza Sah Pehlevi, on the occasion of the state visit of Riza Sah Pehlevi, the Sah of Iran. Özsoy is a three-act opera, with twelve scenes. Research Theme: A Critical History of Opera in Turkey with a Portrayal of Turkish opera works. FEMALE GRANDEUR AND OPERATIC PERFORMANCE Background: In the Muslim Ottoman society, it was religiously forbidden for women to appear as actresses on stage. The first female stage performers in the Ottoman society were from among the non-Muslim sections of the society. This social convention was also valid in the very early years of the Turkish Republic; until the first Turkish female stage performers broke these taboos for rather high costs. This was also valid for opera practice; and thus is the essence of this research theme: the necessity to look at the female side of opera in Turkey; a country that raised highly impressive voices for its opera stage. Fact: The first Muslim female actress to appear on stage was Afife Jale (1902-1941), who made her debut as late as 1920. The first Turkish female opera singer was Semiha Berksoy (1910-2004), who was also a painter, and an internationally acclaimed artist. After her first public recital in Istanbul (1929) where she sang Chanson Endu from Rimsky-Korsakov’s Sadko (1895-1896) and Mussetta’s Aria from Puccini’s La Bohème (1896) with the accompaniment of “Turkish Five” composer Cemal Reşit Rey (1904-1985), she made her debut as Ayşim in Özsoy in 1934. She was also the first Turkish female opera singer to sing in Europe (Berlin, 1939, as Ariadne in Ariadne auf Naxos- R. Strauss), and in this way perhaps the role model for Leyla Gencer (1928-2008) a.k.a. La Diva Turca, who would build up her “queendom” through a glorious international career in Milan’s Teatro alla Scala as of the fifties. Her Austrian debut was 1957 in Vienna, at the Wiener Staatsoper on 17th and 20th June with Verdi’s La Traviata as Violetta under Herbert von Karajan. Second time in Vienna was in 1961 on 7th April with Puccini’s Tosca as Tosca under Berislav Klobucar. Then in 1961 in the Salzburger Festspiele she performed on the dates of 9th, 15th, 24th, 29th August with Verdi’s Simon Boccanegra as Maria Boccanegra under Gianandrea Gavazzeni. Her last stage appearance in Austria was in 1962, again in Wiener Staatsoper. On 15th November she sang Verdi’s Don Carlo as Elisabetta di Valois, and on 20th November Un Ballo in Maschera as Amelia. A Pearl on Turkish Opera Stage after La Gencer Zehra Yildiz (1956-1997): the late Turkish soprano Zehra Yıldız certainly deserves to be mentioned in this section, for her outstanding career, and also for her unfortunate and untimely loss in the age of 41. Her first debut was in 1982 with J. Strauss II’s Eine Nacht in Venedig (Berlin 1883) as Barbara at the Istanbul State Opera and Ballet, and her final stage appearance was with Beethoven’s Fidelio as Leonore in Heidelberg Opera on 9th December 1997, only three days prior to her death on 12th December. Research Theme: The First Female Opera Singers in Turkey: A History of Female Presence in Opera in Turkey/Turkish Opera and Its Reception. “It is truly extraordinary to bring together the high arts of opera and diplomacy”.