Download Pilot Job Knowledge Test Outline 2

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1. Stick Man
Cognitive Notes:
Upside down facing – rock back
Upside down away – cartwheel
Right side up facing – twist
Right side up away – look through
2. Boarder Color, Arrow Color, Arrow direction
3. Then again with rule deduction
Tone = rule has changed (must be a NEW rule
Get one free mess up per rule change
Chant rule in head “Boarder, Direction, Arrow Color
4.
5.
6.
7.
Glideslope Wait till it gets in
Same / Different
GS & Same/Diff
Tap in increasing order
Numbers
Alphabet
Alphabet and Number
8. Slider Bar Localizer
same
opp
opp
same
say rule
say rule
F-J, U-X
F-J, U-X
Gets faster the further away from fulcrum
Keep it near the center, alternate sides of the fulcrum
Then combined with number recall –
You want to pick PREVIOUS number
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FEDEX Pilot Job Knowledge Test Outline
“Everything for Professional Pilot" and "Aero for Naval Aviators". Read them over and over. Know it
cold. General knowledge test is really really hard. Delta Test goug is decent prep
Knowledge/understanding of principles and the application to commercial aircraft operation.
Emphasis is on application and problem solving. It is suggested that you invest time studying these
areas, up to a level required for an ATP exam, in order to do well on the test.
Aerodynamics
1.
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Airplane nomenclature and terminology
Empennage = Vertical and Horiz stabilizer
inboard ailerons - low and high speed flight
outboard ailerons - low speed flight only (think > 26 alpha)
Control Tab - move in event of manual reversion
spoilers - reduce lift on landing
wing vortex gens: At high speed - delay onset of drag divergence & maintains aileron
effectiveness
Primary flight controls - outboard ailerons
high lift devices - lift at low speeds
leading edge flaps in landing config - prevent flow seperation
leading edge slot - changes stall AOA - higher angle
flaps are more effective on - thick wings
Fowler flaps vs. split flaps - generate the most nose down twisting moments
split flaps (coming from bottom of wing) as compared to plain flaps - produce only slightly
more lift but much more drag
2. Atmosphere:
 Static pres
 Density:
Static pres, density, temp, humidity, viscosity, relationships to altitude
results from the mass of air supported above that level.
the mass (quantity of matter) of air per cubic foot of volume,
Density varies directly with pressure, inversely with temperature
The ratio water vapor at given to the max that could exist at that temp (%)
Moist air is lighter than dry air (water vapor is lighter than air)
Air is least dense when it contains the maximum amount of water vapor
the proportion between the shearing stress and gradient for a fluid flow
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Humidity:
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Viscosity:
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Standard atmosphere: Pressure, temperature and density
Standard Pressure =
29.92 in Hg, 1013.2 millibars, or 760 millimeters Hg
.01 = 10 feet Standard Press Lapse Rate (1” Hg per 1,000’)
Pressure Alt
Height above a standard datum plane
Standard Temp
15C or 59F F = 9/5 C + 32 (32F = 0C)
Standard Temp Lapse Rate - 2C (-3.5F) per 1,000 ft.
Density Altitude:
Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard Temperature
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With Alt Increase:
Density
Humidity
Pressure
Temp
Viscosity
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Decrease
Decrease
Decrease
Decrease
Increase
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3. Basic aerodynamic principles
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Aerodynamic properties and relationships to airflow dynamics
Bernoulli’s Principle: as velocity of fluid increases, the pressure decreases
high pressure above wing, low pressure below
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Properties of airflow
< 260 knots, air can be considered incompressible (density)
Given altitude, density remains nearly constant while its pressure varies
The effects of viscosity (prevent motion of fluid) are negligible.
Subsonic
<0.75 Mach
Transonic
0.75 Mach – 1.20 Mach
Supersonic
1.2-5.0
Boundary layer: layer of air over wing’s surface, which is slowed / stopped by viscosity.
Laminar - begins as smooth flow, increases in thickness over wing to TE (less stable)
Turbulent - smooth laminar flow breaks down and transitions
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Pitot-static effects
Measures the fluid flow velocity by determining the ram air press (stagnation/total pressure)
Total pressure = dynamic pressure + static pressure
Static pressure is the pressure of still air
When alternate static port used (inside) -- lower pressure = altimeter indicates higher
airspeed indicates greater than actual, VSI indicates climb in level flight)
“High to low, hot to cold, - look out below”, the alt indicates lower than actual
(Cold air is denser)
Pitot Static Systems
A/S
Altimeter
Tube blocked, drain open
Goes to zero
no effect
Tube & drain blocked
High in climb
no effect
Static port blocked
Low in climb
Freeze
Alternate static source
Faster A/S
Higher altitude
Both blocked
Freeze
Freeze
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Ground speed and effect of wind
GS = TAS +/- Wind
(GS) x (Time) = Distance
Drift (°) = [(Crosswind Component) x 60] / TAS
Drift (°) = X-wind (kt) / Miles/minute
35 kt xwind / .7 mach
= 5°
Degrees off
030
045
060
090
Crosswind
50%
70%
90%
100%
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Mach #, critical Mach, speed of sound, and effects of change of temperature and
altitude
Mach Number: the ratio of the TAS to the speed of sound in the same conditions
IAS for any given Mach number decreases with an increase in altitude
.9 Mach at 10k (500+), .9 Mach at 40k (200+)
Speed of sound varies only with temperature (15C- 661 kts, FL400- 574 kts)
Critical Mach: free stream mach when airflow over any part reaches (but doesn’t exceed) Mach 1.0
Highest free stream Mach number w/out supersonic flow - local velocity not sonic
Free stream Mach # which produces first evidence of local sonic flow
Speed of Sound: 661 kts at sea level, STD
Think of a climb
Increase altitude = Decrease in speed of sound (increase in Mach number)
Decrease temperature = decrease speed of sound (increase in Mach number)
Constant Mach climb (.88) the KCAS (KTAS or KIAS as well) is falling off (decreasing)
Swept Wings:
+ Critical mach # increases significantly (formation of shock wave delayed)
- Disadvantage - wingtip stalls prior to wing root.
+ Delay the onset of compressibility effects
Mach Tuck / Sever moment = Center of Pressure moves aft as shock wave moves aft
shock induced sep of airflow symmetrically near root of swept wing
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4. Aerodynamic forces
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Airfoil nomenclay, properties of airflow wrt airfoil, properties of aerodynamic forces
Camber: the curve of an airfoil’s upper or lower surface
Chord line: an imaginary line drawn through an airfoil from the LE to TE
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC): the avg distance from the LE to TE
Airflow: High pressure below, low pressure above
Center of Pressure: Average of pressure variation (for given AOA)
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Center of gravity, flight path, relative wind
Center of Gravity: the point about which an airplane would balance if suspended
Flight Path: direction of aircraft movement (climb, level, descent)
Relative Wind: the direction of airflow with respect to the wing,
parallel to and opposite the flight path of the aircraft
Relationship between lift, thrust, relative wind, drag and flight path
Lift:
acts perpendicular to the flight path through the wing’s center of lift
Thrust: opposes or overcomes the force of drag, parallel to the longitudinal axis
Drag: rearward, retarding force, opposes thrust, parallel to the relative wind
Weight combined load of aircraft, pulls downward because of gravity, opposes lift,
acts vertically downward through the CG.
Angle of attack, angle of incidence
Angle of Attack:
chord line and the relative wind
Angle of Incidence: chord line and longitudinal axis of the aircraft
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Generation of net lift force, influence of angle of attack
Lift coefficient is ratio between lift pressure and dynamic pressure.
Lift (lbs) = ½p*V²*A*Cl
p = air density, V = true airspeed, A = wing surf area,
Cl = lift coefficient at desired angle of attack
Increase in AOA = Increase in lift up to limit
Angle of attack is the primary control in steady flight
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Aerodynamic force, lift, drag, Moment about aerodynamic center and factors affecting
Aerodynamic force: Due to the relative motion between the body and the fluid. A
Airfoil moving relative to the air generates and aerodynamic force partly parallel to the
direction of motion, and partly perpendicular to the direction of relative motion.
Drag: the component parallel to the direction of relative motion
Lift: the component perpendicular to the direction of relative motion
Aerodynamic center: point on the chord at which the pitching moment coefficient
for the airfoil does not vary with the lift coefficient (i.e. angle of attack).
The aerodynamic center of the airfoil, and not the center of pressure.
Pitch:
Lateral Axis. (longitudinal stability)
Location of CG, Wing, Tail, and surface area of tail
Stable = CG forward of the CL
Roll:
Longitudinal Axis. (Lateral stability)
Dihedral:
Gust gust shoves one wing down,
Bank without turning = sideslip into lower wing
Lower wing sees higher AOA = more lift = wing rises
Sweepback: Low wing slips into windstreem = more lift
Yaw
Vertical Axis (Directional or Vertical stability)
Area of vertical fin and sides of fuselage AFT of CG
Vert tail size and distance to CG
Sweepback: when jets yaws, forward wing sees more drag – goes back
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Effects of changing AOA or true airspeed on moment about
aerodynamic center
AOA:
Must be high to increase lift when airspeed is low.
If airspeed is increased, the angle of attack must be decreased.
True airspeed: Increase in TAS increases Forces = increases moment
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Forces in a turn, climb and descent
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Skid:
Slip:
Turn: Increase Lift by increasing AOA
Increase Thrust to maintain airspeed
Excess of centrifugal force over the horizontal component of lift
Pulling a / c towards outside of turn. Rate too great for angle of bank
Either reduce rate of turn, increase bank, or a combination of the two.
Excess of Horizontal Lift (sLip) –
Plane not turning at the rate appropriate to bank being used
Yawing towards outside of turn due to the horiz comp of lift > centrif force
Either decrease bank, increase rate of turn, or combo
Angle of Bank (standard rate turn) = 15% of TAS (180 = 27)
Turn rad NM (standard rate turn) = TAS / 200 (NM per min x 3
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Climb:
In initial climb + AOA = More lift than weight
Decreased airspeed speed b/c Weight acting inline with drag > Thrust
Eventually……Decreased airspeed = decreased Drag
Steady speed reached (lower)
Descent
Initially AOA reduced (flight path constant - inertia)
Less AOA = Less Lift = Weight > Lift = Descent
Airspeed will increase unless power adjusted
5. Lift
Lift force—factors affecting
p
Air Density (+cool, +dry air)
V
True Airspeed
S
Wing surface area
Cl
Coefficient of lift at desired angle of attack
Stall
smooth flow over airfoil breaks up & separates
Abrupt change of flight characteristics
Sudden loss of lift
Set by Critical AOA
Can occur at any pitch attitude or airspeed
Factors (increase stall Speed):
Load Factor (Level Turns) - Increase AOA
Turns (AOA to account for centrifugal force)
Weight (1% speed for 2% weight)
Forward CG
Airfoil - Imperfections, Ice, Frost
High density altitude
Factors decreasing stall speed
High lift devices – reduce AOA for a given lift coefficient
Lower density altitudes
-Weight increases the stall speed by approximately 1% for every 2% change in weight
-High lift devices reduce stall speed by reducing the angle of attack for any given lift coefficient
Ground effect
Slightly increased air pressure below aircraft wing that increases the amount of lift produced
W/in approximately one wing span
Reduction in upwash, downwash & wingtip vortices = corresponding decrease in induced drag.
Less thrust required
Less AOA required
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6. Drag: types, causes and effects
Gross weight is increased - induced drag increases more than parasitie
Parasite drag (all but induced drag, not associated with production of Lift):
Form drag – Shape - disruption of the streamline flow
Interference drag – intersection of airstreams
Skin friction – aerodynamic resistance to irregularities
Increases with an increase in TAS
Induced drag:
Created by the production of lift (inc wingtip vortices)
Increases with a decrease in TAS (Increase in AOA)
7.
Thrust
Power curves: Power required to achieve equilibrium in constant-altitude flight at various
airspeeds is depicted on a power required curve.
Regional on normal command (at Level flight):
Higher A/S requires a higher power setting
Lower airspeed requires a lower power setting.
Region of reverse command (at Level flight):
Higher airspeed requires a lower power setting
Lower airspeed requires a higher power
Max Endurance: As airspeed is increased, power requirements decrease due to aerodynamic factors
and fuel flow decreases. Beyond this point increases in airspeed come at a cost.
Best endurance speed: lowest power will sustain level flight.
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AOA
Low Speed Flight:
Level Flight:
Thrust decreases – airspeed decreases – AOA must increase
Thrust increases – airspeed increases – AOA must decrease
AOA increases with increase in power below best endurance speed to hold altitude,
Decreases with increase in power above best endurance
Factors affecting
Weight: changes induced drag and induced power at any given change.
Changes in thrust and power required at high-speed flight are relatively slight
Greatest changes are in the low speed range of flight (due to effects of induced drag).
Curve moves up.
Equivalent parasite area: flaps, gear, etc. will decrease aircraft efficiency.
Curve moves left
Altitude: aero conditions occur at higher true airspeeds.
Increase in altitude will cause the thrust curve to flatten out (to higher TAS)
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Stability and control
Trimmed flight Relieve the need of the pilot to maintain constant pressure on the controls
Aerodynamically assisting movement and the position of control surfaces
Trim tabs- move in opposite direction of control surfaces
Balance tabs – coupled to control surface rods (still move opposite)
Antiservo tabs – coupled to control rods, but move with control surface
Relationship between controllability and stability
Controllability:
capability (quality) of an aircraft to respond
to a pilot’s control, with respect to flightpath
and altitude. Independent of stability.
Stability:
Inherent quality of an airplane to correct for
conditions that may disturb its equilibrium, and
to return or continue on the original flightpath.
Static – Initial Tendency
Dynamic – Overall Tendency
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Static stability: initial tendency the aircraft displays after its equilibrium is disturbed
Tendency to correct in opposite direction
Positive:
corrects towards original state of equilibrium
Neutral:
no correction - remains in new condition after being disturbed
Negative:
Continues away from original state of equilibrium
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Dynamic stability: overall tendency the aircraft displays after being disturbed
Positive:
Eventually returns to original state
Neutral:
corrections do not damp or get worse
Negative:
Corrections get worse (divergent)
Phugoid oscillation: “long period” (> 10 sec) oscillation
It is a slow change in pitch & airspeed
AOA remains constant
Aileron: Right stick = right aileron up = less camber, less lift = wing drops = roll right
Proverse roll:
Tendency of an airplane to roll in the same direction as it is yawing (Pro,same)
Down aileron experiences a large increase in lift and small increase in drag.
Up aileron/spoiler experiences a large increase in drag with a small increase in lift.
Adverse Yaw:
Tendency of an airplane to yaw away of the turn/bank (outside, opposite, Adv).
Outside aileron wing produced more Lift in order to roll = higher induced drag
It is mostly due to drag, slightly due to velocity differences
More pronounced at slower speeds (larger control inputs), long wingspan
Elevator: Aft stick – Elevator LE down, Trailing edge up, “dig in” to turn = “up elevator” to go up
Decreases camber, Pitches about Center of Gravity
Rudder: Sideward lift
Flaps: Increase both lift and induced drag for given AOA
Leading Edge Slot, Flap, Cuff
Spoiler – Spoil lift and increase drag
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Dutch roll
Coupled lateral (YAW) & directional (ROLL) oscillation on swept wing a/c
Oscillations are out of phase (roll and yaw our out of phase), dynamically stable
Yaw right, Roll right (Left wing sees higher a/s = more lift = rolls right)
Increased lift on left wing = increase drag = yaw Left (Nose makes a figure
8)
A/C with dutch tendencies usually equipped with gyro-stabilized yaw dampers.
Wake turbulence
Generated by counter-rotating vortices trailing from wingtips (towards each other at top)
Strongest when an aircraft is heavy, clean, and slow.
Pressure differential triggers the rollup of the airflow aft of the wing resulting in swirling
the wake consists of two counter rotating cylindrical vortices – avoid core by 100’
Land beyond large a/c touchdown point, Rotate prior to rotation point
Worst: Quartering tailwind , watch out for drift from parallel rwy w/in 2500’
3 classes for purposes of wake turbulence:
Small: <41k
Large: 41k - 255k
Heavy: >255k pounds
Following (cruise/approach) at same alt or < 1000’ below (no waiver):
Heavy
behind Heavy 4 miles
Heavy/Large
behind Heavy 4 miles
Behind 
Small
behind 757
5
Small (41)
miles
Large
Small/Large
behind Heavy 5 miles
Heavy (255)
Small
-
In Front 
Large (757)
4 (5)
4 (4)
4 (4)
Heavy
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5
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Small a/c following a/c over landing threshold (no waiver):
Small
behind Heavy 6 miles
Small
behind 757
5 miles
Small
behind Large 4 miles
All Takeoff behind Heavy/757:
2 minutes or 4-5 miles (no waiver)
- from same threshold
- on crossing rwy & flt paths cross
- from threshold of parallel rwys < 2500’
3 minutes (no waiver):
- intersection t/o on same rwy or parallel <2500’ (same or opposite direction)
- opposite direction t/o same rwy or parallel <2500’ behind Large/Heavy t/o or low/missed appr
Small takeoff behind Large:
3 minutes (pilot may waive):
- intersection t/o on same rwy or parallel <2500’ (same or opposite direction)
- opposite direction t/o same rwy or parallel <2500’ behind Large/Heavy t/o or low/missed appr
Behind a/c doing low app/ missed app/ touch and go - wait at least 2 minutes
Engine out aerodynamics:
9.
Requires rudder input, generating a side slip
Flight at high angles of attack
Aircraft stall characteristics & Stall and stalling angle of attack (previous)
Stall speed and effect of gross weight, load factor and altitude (previous)
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Fundamental principle of stall recovery:
Decrease the angle of attack (to increase airspeed)
Aft CG is worst situation (authority to decrease AOA)
Purpose of high lift devices and effect of flap extension
Purpose: increase the max coeficient of lift (Cl) of the aircraft to reduce stall speed
Flap extension: Improve slow speed handling during t/o, climb, landing
Increase both lift and induced drag for any given AOA
Lower AOA for any given lift coefficient
Adding camber aft on the chord – Lower stall speed.
10.
a.
Operating strength limitations
Maneuvering load factor—effect of
Velocity: increase V, flight load is increased
Weight: exceed the structural load limitation
Level turn requires: 1/(Cos Bank)
SAFE FLIGHT ENVELOPE: ------------------------
V-speeds Operation
VS0
Power-off stall speed, Landing config min controllable
VS1
Power-off stall speed, Specified config min controllable
VX
Best angle-of-climb (increases with alt, A+ , angle+)
VY
Best rate-of-climb (decreases with alt, Yaw Rate me down)
VLE Landing Gear extended limit speed (extended)
VLO Landing Gear Operate speed (extension ongoing)
VFE
Flaps Extended limit
VA
Aero Limit - Design maneuvering airspeed.
Max speed at which the limit load can be imposed (gust, full deflection in 1 axis)
VNO Normal Operation max speed, max structural cruising speed.
VNE Never Exceed speed (structural damage / failure)
VMO Maximum operating limit speed
VMU Minimum unstick speed.
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V-speeds Emergencies (for Transport Category Aircraft – Bold posted in flight deck)
VS
Stalling speed, minimum controllable steady flight
VMC Minimum control speed with Critical engine inoperative
VMCG Minimum control ground speed (directional control
Critical engine inop, takeoff power on other engine(s)
Aero controls only, no nose wheel steer (less than V1)
VMCA min control in air speed (above assump, 5° bank into good )
V1
Decision speed / Critical eng failure speed (Abort / Continue)
VR
Rotation speed. > V1 and > 1.05 times VMC.
Must allow engine out acceleration to V2 by 35’ alt at EOR
VLOF Lift-off speed
V2
Takeoff safety speed (by 35’ at EOR), SETOS
Best one-engine operative angle of climb speed
Hold until clear or obstacles or at least 400’ AGL
VFS Final segment climb speed, 1 engine inop, clean,
max continuous power
V-speeds Extras
V3
Flap retraction speed
V4
Steady initial climb speed, until accel to flap retraction speed (NLT 400 feet)
VB
Blowing Gust - Design speed for maximum gust intensity
VC
Cruise - Design cruising speed, aka optimum cruise speed
VD
Diving speed.
VDF Flight diving speed
VF
Flap speed
VFC Maximum speed for stability characteristics
VH
Maximum speed in level flight at maximum continuous power.
VLOF Lift-off speed
Safe flight envelope (See Vg diagram)
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11.
Takeoff and landing
Factors affecting minimum takeoff and landing distances
Stall speed or minimum flying speed
Acceleration varies directly with the forces & inversely with the mass of an object
2 x the speed = 4 x the distance to stop
T/O & Land Performance:
(SAWW or SWWAT)
Slope / gradient
Altitude – Density (Pressure Altitude & Temperature)
Weight
Wind
Effect of Weight, Pressure, Altitude, Temp, Humidity, Wind and Ground Effect (T/O & Land)
Weight
Effect
Higher lift-off speed & Land speed
Greater mass to accelerate / decellerate
Increased Drag (induced) and ground friction (retarding force)
T/O result
VAD (increased velocity, decreased accel, increased t/o distance)
0.5 factor
-1 factor (min)
2x factor min
Land
same
1x factor
Density Alt
(+ temp)
(- press)
(+ humid)
T/O Effect
Wind
T/O & Land
Humidity
Increase in humidity - air less dense –same as lower pressure
Increase in TAS speeds, Less Thrust
Ground effect
Land effect
Changes TAS speed (same IAS and dynamic press, higher TAS)
Decreased thrust and reduced accel force
Changes TAS speed (same IAS and dynamic press, higher TAS)
No effect on deceleration (just high higher TAS)
Changes ground speed (for required IAS)
Less AOA required for same C Lift
Thrust required is reduced
Elevator effectiveness is reduced
Floating on Landing
Friction and aerodynamic braking effectiveness—factors affecting
Friction
Normal force on the braking wheel surfaces
Affected by surface condition (dry, wet, icy, etc.)
Affected by wheel speed - as speed ~0 -- normal force approaches weight
Aerobraking Maximum deceleration by creating the greatest possible aerodynamic drag
More effective above 60-70 percent of touchdown speed.
Hydroplaning
Water on the runway reduces the friction between the tires and the runway
Dynamic: a/c tires ride on thin sheet of water. Min speed = 9 x √Tire Press. Continues below!!
Viscous: surface is damp and provides a very thin film of fluid
Reverted Rubber: heat from friction boils the water and reverts the rubber - forms a seal
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12.
Airplane performance
Effect of weight, altitude, wind and angle of attack on airplane performance
Weight:
Shallower climb, increased fuel consump, slower cruise, reduced range
Altitude:
Increased TAS, reduced stability (dampening), restricted operating speed range,
reduced maneuverability, reduction in lift generated
Wind:
Proportional to groundspeed
AOA:
Power curve dependent. Additional trust req’d for level flight
Read 225 in FAA, bottom left to make sure this makes sense (turbines not affected by alt)
Maximum endurance, range, angle of climb, rate of climb, glide range, glide endurance
Max Endurance
Min Fuel flow (max flying time)
Flt hrs / lb
=
Flt hrs per hr / lb per hour =
1/fuel flow
Max Range:
At L/D max, certain AOA, AOA does not change with weight (A/S does)
Max range per fuel load, min fuel load for a given distance
NM / lb
=
NM per hour / lbs per hour =
kts/fuel flow
Angle of Climb
For a given weight
Depends on the dif between thrust and drag, or excess thrust.
Maximum angle is at max excess thrust (rocket)
Rate of Climb
Vertical velocity (speed and i nclination)
Maximum rate occurs at greatest difference
between power available and power required.
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Glide Range
Range…At min glide angle (L/Dmax), weight determines the best glide speed.
A heavy and light aircraft will glide the same distance under this condition.
Glide Endurance
Time…heavier = higher glide airspeed at same angle = higher fpm
The Cl for a heavier aircraft is greater, requiring additional airspeed.
Not sure if required:
CG position influences the lift and AOA of the wing, the amount and direction of force on the tail,
and the degree of deflection of the stabilizer needed to supply the proper tail force for equilibrium.
The latter is very important because of its relationship to elevator control force.
Forward CG:
A/C stalls at a higher speed with a forward CG location.
Stalling AOA is reached sooner (at higher speed b/c increased wing
loading
Higher elevator control forces
Increased stabilizer deflection required to balance the aircraft
Aircraft cruises slower (increased drag due to higher AOA req’d and more
downward deflection of stabilizer required)
Aft CG:
Less stable - increase in the AOA
Wing contribution to the aircraft’s stability is now decreased
Tail contribution is still stabilizing.
If wing and tail contributions balance, then neutral stability exists.
CG movement further aft results in an unstable aircraf
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Engineering
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Physical principles of gas turbine engines
Air inlet
Compressor
Combustion chambers
Turbine section
Exhaust
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o
Principles of gas turbine operation
Basic principles
Intake air is compressed by the compressors and forced into the combustion chamber. Ignition is
initiated and then fuel is continuously sprayed into the combustion chamber, creating exhaust gasses that
drive the turbines. The turbines, through shafts, drive the compressors, continuing the process.
o
Effect of pressure, temperature, altitude and humidity on thrust in a gas
turbine engine
Pressure increase
Thrust Increase
Temp increase
Thrust Decrease
Alt increase
Thrust Decrease (even faster than temp affecting)
Above trop, density decreases and temp levels/climbs
Humidity decrease
Thrust Increase (least of 4 factros)
o
Effect of airspeed and ram effect on thrust in a gas turbine engine
Incoming air momentum flow is called ram flow
Compression of air in an inlet duct is ram effect
When moving the ram effect raises the air mass flow to the engine and intake pressure = +Thrust
o
Engine instrumentation
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR): ratio of turbine discharge to compressor inlet pressure
Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT): monitors the temperature of the turbine section
N1 Indicator: Low pressure compressor, % of design RPM
N2 Indicator: High pressure compressor, % of design RPM
Interstage Turbine Temperature (ITT): High pressure Turbine exit
o Function of gas turbine compressor
Increase pressure and reduce velocity
Centrifugal-Flow compressor: air slowed and centrifugally slung outward into diffuser
Axial-Flow Compressor: air remains parallel to the longitudinal, rotor and stators
Dual-compressor engines: higher compression ratios
The Forward most compressor is the low-pressure compressor (N1)
The second compressor is the high-pressure compressor (N2)
o Function of turbine section
Sustain engine operation by providing rotation of the compressor section (Shaft)
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 Compressor stalls
o
Characteristics and causes of compressor stalls: airflow distortions,
mechanical problems
Imbalance between the two vector quantities, inlet velocity and compressor rotational speed.
Blades’ angle of attack exceeds the critical angle of attack, interrupting smooth airflow
Indications: “Bang” for intermittent stalls as flow reversal takes place
“Loud roar and vibration” for while a continuous flow reversal
RMP fluctuations and an increase in EGT.
Mechanical: Variable inlet guide vanes and variable stator vanes direct the incoming air
into the rotor blades at an appropriate angle.
o
Methods to avoid, reduce or resolve compressor stalls
Avoid:
Operating within manufacturer’s recommendations
Resolve:
Reduce throttle setting, lower AOA, and increase airspeed
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o
o
Hydraulic systems
Basic hydraulic theory
Pascal’s Law “pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted
equally in all directions throughout the fluid such that the pressure ratio remains the same”
Powerful, but lightweight transmission method.
Basic operation of aircraft hydraulic systems
Reservoir, lines
Pump
Filter
Selector valve (flow direction)
Relief valve (excess pressure)
Actuator (usually short travel)
o
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o
Function of basic hydraulic components used on aircraft
Pumps: Convert rotary motion to hydraulic pressure
Motors: Convert hydraulic power back to mechanical power
Actuator: Translate pressure into mechanical movement.
Valves: direct the flow of fluid (power)
Reservoirs: usually low pressure to minimize foaming
Accumulators: store hyd pressure for backup operations
normally sealed pressure container w/ diaphragm
Electrical systems
Basic operation of an aircraft electrical system
Engine driven generators supply current to the electrical system and maintain a sufficient
electrical charge in the battery
Battery provides power for starting (APU, engine) and limited supply of emergency power
A bus bar system is used to connect the main electrical system to the equipment
Voltage and amps are monitored and regulated, with multiple circuit protection devices.
22
o
Methods of producing electricity in aircraft
Ground power
Battery
Generator (Engine driven, APU, ADG)
o Function of aircraft electrical components
Generators: Generate electricity by moving permanent magnets around a coil of wire,
thereby motivating electron flow in the coil.
Normally generate AC current (amps) too power all components on the circuits (or load shed)
Current = output volume or flow (amps = music volume = flow)
Voltage = output of electrical pressure (volts)
Generator Control Units (GCU):
Voltage regulators, direct current to battery for recharging
Provide circuit and generator protection -- disconnect from the system if abnormalities
Battery: Power reservoir that stores electrical energy in a chemical form.
Must have lower voltage than the system to charge. Rated at amp-hours.
Ni-cad: put out sustained voltage over a longer period of time
Memory characteristic (low usage limits ability to handle high demand) Thermal runaway
(excessive current is drawn & replaced causing overheat)
Starter: driven electrically by a battery
Relays: remotely control electric circuits carrying large amounts of current
Solenoid: electrically powered remote control device, move shaft over a short distance
Transformers: used to step aircraft voltage (usually down)
Transformer-rectifier units (TRU) convert AC to DC power (ACDC transformed rock)
Inverters: convert DC power to AC power
Circuit breakers: disconnect individual components that are drawing too much current
Fuses: open circuits that are drawing too much current
Diodes: one-way check valves
Bus ties: switches or relays used to connect / disconnect buses from one another (isolation)
o Aircraft electrical distribution system
Bus Bar System: organized into separate but interconnected circuits.
Important circuits can be isolated from one another and supplied by alternate power sources.
Provide redundancy
23
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o
o
Fuel systems
Basic operation of an aircraft fuel system
Store and deliver in the proper amounts and correct pressures
Function of basic fuel system components used on aircraft
Collector bays (header tanks): directly continuous supply to engine
Fuel pumps (high-pressure pumps, low-pressure pumps, auxiliary pumps, and jet pumps):
Move fuel from tank to engines or tank to tank.
Engine driven pumps (900-1000 PSI) provide varying pressure and flow capacity
Return line back to the tanks for unused fuel.
Auxiliary pumps are normally operated from the fuel control panel and have various purposes
Transfer fuel, emergency backup
Motive flow uses small venturi ports to draw fuel into collection lines
Fuel Control Unit: Hydomechanical / Computerized electronic device meters fuel
Collects inputs (thrust lever position, air pressure, engine temp)
Fuel Valves: manage fuel flow: Direction, recirculation.
Fuel Heaters: Fuel-oil or fuel-air (bleed-air) prohibit ice crystals from forming in fuel
Fuel Vents: Allows outside air into fuel tanks to prohibit a vacuum from forming as fuel is used
Capacitance fuel quantity indicator system: probes measuring electrical capacitance
o Fuel flow through basic aircraft fuel system
24
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o
o
Lubrication systems
Basic operation of an aircraft lubrication system
Function of basic lubrication system components used on aircraft
Oil cools and lubricate several parts of the engine.
Scavenging system returns oil to the tank for reuse.
Oil normally cooled by a heat exchanger.
Oil tank & sump are pressurized = constant head pressure to oil pump (prevent cavitation at alt)
Pump -- Filter -- Heat exchanger – Engine – Sumps -- Scavenge pumps – Reservoir
PFHESSR Pure Fucking Hotness….Engine...sum scavenging raccoon
 Accessory, starter and ignition systems
o
Basic operation of an aircraft accessory, starter and ignition system
Accessory Drive Gearbox: Engine drive shaft by bevel gears from N2 compressor shaft.
Starter and Ignition System: High pressure air (APU, Ground air, cross-bleed)
Drives a pneumatic starter motor to rotate the compressor
Fuel is added, Igniters begin the combustion process
Once combustion starts, igniters turn off.
o
Types of accessories used on aircraft and how they are driven
Oil pump, Hydraulic Pump, Fuel Pump
Alternator, Generator (IDG), air turbine starter
o Starting sequence for a gas turbine engine
Compressor rotation
Air
Fuel Introduction
Fuel
Ignition
Fire
o Types of abnormal starts
Hot Start:
Fuel is introduced when compressor RMP is too low
Pressure inadequate in the combustion chamber
Fuel burns too hot with little or no flow aft into the turbine section
Hung Start:
Normal light-off, RPM steady but no increasing to Idle RPM
Due to insufficient power from the starter or a fuel control malfunction
25

o
Flap system
Types of large aircraft flaps
-- Slotted flaps
Form a space or “slot” between flap LE and wing – high press air
Prevents air separation and increases the lift when flap lowered
-- Fowler flaps
Move on tracks aft of the wing TE (vice hinging downward
Changes camber and increase surface area
Initial extension: Increase lift
Midrange: Increases both lift and drag
Full/Final: Increases drag (Steepen descent w/o increasing A/S)
o Effects and methods of actuating flaps
Effects:
Increased Lift and Drag, change airfoil Coef of lift - Decrease stall airspeed
Methods: Drive motor (hyd or mech) and gearbox assembly w/electronic position sensors
Actuators via torque tubes and ball screw jacks

Landing gear system—brakes, tires
Hydraulic pressure with gear position switches to confirm position
Squat switch prevents retraction while on the ground
Warning systems - Notification in low-power or alt or flaps extended with the gear retracted
o
Brakes: Multi-disc rotor-and-stator, Power assist, Antiskid w/computer-controlled
hydraulics
Automatic braking provides a level of preselected deceleration
Sensors are included to monitor brake temperatures and eliminate brake fade
o
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o
Tires:
Pressure relief valves (overpressure valve) and fFusible plugs
Chine design directs water away from the engines
Air conditioning and pressurization systems
Basic operations
Engine bleed air is used to pressurize the cabin (pressure vessel).
Pressure relief valves (positive and negative) and dump valves are safety features.
Cabin altitude: cabin pressure in terms of equivalent altitude above sea level
Cabin rate of climb: shows rate the cabin is climbing or descending
Pressure differential: between the cabin and outside atmosphere
o Abnormal situations
Decompression: lost pressurization indicated by increase of cabin altitude
Rapid decompression- sudden decompression of the aircraft

Anti-ice/de-ice systems
Bleed air thermal LE anti-ice system: Hot, high-pressure bleed air routed under the leading edges
26
Electric heating: Windshield and windows
27
Air Navigation
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o
Introductory air navigation: basic concepts, principles and terminology
Chart projections and plotting
Great circle and relationship to aircraft navigation
Shortest distance between any two points on a sphere measured along a path on the surface
Approximates the flight lengths between two airports.
Jetstream routes: Eastbound flights in the northern hemisphere take advantage of winds
o
Heading:
Course:
Track:
Drift Angle:
Heading, course, track, bearing and relationships among them
Direction nose pointing (magnetic compass or heading indicator)
Intended path or direction of flight (measured in degrees from north)
Actual path made over the ground in flight
Difference between heading and track

o
Altitudes and airspeeds
Relationship among pressure, altitude and airspeed
Airspeed measures the differential between ram and static pressure (dynamic pressure)
As altitude increases, static pressure decreases
o Indicated airspeed, calibrated airspeed, true airspeed, ground speed and Mach number
IAS: Shown on the dial, based on pitot static airspeed
Standard atmosphere adiabatic compressible flow, sea level, uncorrected for sys errors
CAS: IAS corrected for instrument errors, port position error and installation error
TAS: Actual airspeed, Correction for Pressure altitude and temperature to the CAS.
Add 2% to the calibrated airspeed for each 1,000 feet of altitude
GS: Speed over the ground. TAS adjusted for Wind
Mach #: Ratio of TAS to speed of sound in the same atmospheric conditions
IAS for any given Mach number decreases with an increase in altitude
Speed of sound varies only with temperature (15C = 661 kts, 40k = 574 kts)
 Winds in flight (pg 338)
o Evaluating the effect of wind on the path of an aircraft over the ground
Drift Angle = Xwind component (kts) / nm per minute
o Windshear - Recognition, considerations and actions
Sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or direction in horiz or vert plane
Recognition: +/- 15 knots indicated airspeed, 500 fpm vertical speed,
Degrees pitch attitude, 1 dot displacement from the glideslope,
Abnormal power requirements, aural warning
Considerations: Frontal systems, thunderstorms, and temperature inversions
Strong upper level winds (>25 knots), convective precipitation
Microburst: < 1 mile horizontally and 1,000 feet vertically, 6,000 fpm, (<15 min)
Actions:
Max Thrust (full if ground contact is imminent) thrust
Maintain configuration until clear of windshear,
Follow command bars if available.
28

Rate of descent—considerations and computations
Considerations: position relative to crossing restriction, airspeed changes, winds
Calculations:
3 to 1 rule: altitude to lose (in 1,000s) / 3 = miles to descend
Speed change: add 1 NM for every 10 knots of airspeed to lose
VVI =
(Alt / NM) x (NM / minute) x 1000
15k in 25 NM x 8 nm/min x 1000 = 4800 fpm
Angle =
Alt / NM x 10
Ex. 15k in 25 NM: 15/25 x 10 = 6°
Gradient =
Angle x 100
Ex. 6° x 100 = 600 ft/NM
VVI (fpm) = Gradient x NM per minute Ex 600 ft/NM * 8 NM/min = 4800fpm

GMT and conversion to local time
EST = GMT -5 (-4 EDT)
CST = GMT -6 (-5 CDT)
MST = GMT -7 (-6 MDT)
PST = GMT -8 (-7 PDT)
Ex. 1400Z into Pacific Standard Time
“We are +7 to get to Zulu+
=
Local = Zulu – 8
1400Z = 0600L
o Electronic navigation (Methods used for electronic navigation)
1. NDB (Ground) / ADF (in Jet):
Low or medium frequency radio beacon
Transmit non-directional 3 letter code
Not limited by line of sight
Needle points to station
Compass Locator when used in conjunction with an ILS
Disturbances such as lightning, precipitation, interference
2. VHF Omni-Directional Range (VOR)
108.0 – 117.95 Mhz, Morse Code
VOR, VOR/DME, VORTAC
Magnetic bearing to and from station (radials)
Line of sight limited (High > 18k = 130 NM)
Transmits azimuth info along all directions
Terminal, Low Alt, High Alt
±4° for ground checks and ±6° for airborne checks
Morse code identifier
Radial (magnetic course “FROM” station) or its reciprocal (course “TO” the
station)
DME Slant range, UHF “paired frequency”
RNAV GPS, LORAN-C (Low Frq), VOR/DME. Allow straight line via math on
signals
29
Electronic navigation aids and instruments
CDI (no compass)
RMI (radio stuff & compasss)
o
HSI (Compass card)
Aircraft position and course to navigational aid
Given magnetic bearing
Mag bearing: direction to or from station measured relative to magnetic north
Magnetic Bearing (MB) = Relative Bearing (RB) + Magnetic Heading (MH)
220
=
35
185 (RMI example)
True Course + Wind = True Heading.
True heading + Variation = Magnetic heading
Magnetic heading + Deviation = Compass heading
Practice examples??????

o
o
Charts and chart symbology
Airport charts- dependent on charting system used
En route charts
Min Enroute Alt (MEA):
NAVAID coverage & terrain clearance (1k, 2kmts)
Omnidirectional unless indicated by an arrow.
Min Obstacle Clearance (MOCA): signal coverage w/in 22 nm of VOR and terrain 1k, 2k
Min Vector Alt (MVA):
terrain clearance only
Minimum Reception Alt (MRA): identifies an intersection from an off-course NAVAID
Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA): charted when a higher MEA route segment is
approached, climb must be initiated to cross the MCA at the indicated altitude
Maximum Authorized Alt (MAA): highest alt without receiving conflicting nav signals
MSA: 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance for emergency use within a specified distance
VOR Changeover Points (COPs): distance at which to change the VOR frequency
30
o Approach charts- dependent on charting system used
o Navigational aids and distance scales
 Approaches
 ILS approaches
Localizer:
Glide slope:
Beacons:
108.10 to 111.95
Front and back course aligned with runway centerline
18 NM
1 dot = 1.25 degrees, full scale =2.5 degrees, (700’ at threshold)
Intersects MM at 200 feet and OM at 1,400 above runway
Nominally 3 degrees
10 NM
3 degree glidepath (FPM) = TAS x 5
1.4 degrees tall = 1 dot = .35 degrees
OM (FAF) - Blue, dash dash
MM (DH 200’) - Amber, dash dot dash
IM – White, dot dot dot
Visual information: approach lights, touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights
o
Non-precision approaches
LOC, LOC/BC, VOR, VOR/DME, RNAV, NDB
MDA – Above TDZE???? Or Airfield elevation??
Higher minimums than ILS
o
Visual approaches
Must at all times have the preceding aircraft or airport in sight, remaining clear of clouds
31
Advise ATC if unable to continue, follow preceding aircraft, remain clear of clouds, need to climb,
or lose sight of the airport.
o
Final approach segments
Glideslope intercept at published altitude, FAF,
Procedure turn inbound within 5 degrees of final approach course
o
Approach minima
Visibility is controlling, unless otherwise specified
DH for ILS, minimum descent altitude (MDA) for non-precision
MAP based off of time or distance from FAF
o Landing/missed approach/rejected landing
Descent below DH or MDA is not authorized unless:

Aircraft continuously in a position from which a descent to landing on the
intended runway can be made at a normal descent rate using normal maneuvers

Flight visibility is not less than that prescribed for the approach procedure
being used

Visual reference visual and identifiable:
• Approach light system (100’ above runway w/ terminating side row bars)
• Threshold, threshold markings, threshold lights, REIL, VASI,
• Touchdown zone or markings or lights
• Runway or runway markings, runway lights

Missed approach is executed when: arrival at MAP or DH with insufficient
visual reference to the runway, safe approach or landing is not possible, instructed to
do so
• Comply with missed approach procedure
• If prior to the MAP - fly lateral path to MAP and climb to missed approach alt

Rejected landing: Go around after touchdown of the main landing gear or after
bouncing
32
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Holding (AIM 5-3-8)
ATC controller should issueL
• Complete holding instructions (unless pattern is charted)
• EFC time and best estimate of any additional en route/terminal delay.
“Hold [direction] as published” = Low/high Enroute, and area or STAR charts
• If not charted & no instructions -- Pilot should ask for instructions prior to fix.
• If unable to obtain instructions prior to fix -- Enter std pattern on the course on
which the aircraft approached the fix and request further clearance ASAP
Start to slow when 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit to cross at/below max holding speed
When no delay is expected, the controller should issue a clearance beyond the fix as soon as
possible and, when possible, at least 5 minutes before the aircraft reaches the clearance limit.
Pilots should report to ATC the time and altitude/flight level at which the aircraft reaches the
clearance limit and report leaving the clearance limit.
If holding at altitude above published min holding alt, and subsequently cleared for the
approach, the pilot MAY descend to the published minimum holding alt.
Climb-in-Hold: Allowed to accel to 310 KIAS (if restricted – use 200/230 for above/below 6K)
Holding pattern in lieu of Procedure Turn: Additional circuits of the holding pattern are not
necessarily or expected (if at prescribed altitude)
Non-charted patterns:
• Direction of holding from the fix (eight cardinal compass points)
• Holding fix
• Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.
• Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used (in minutes on pilot request)
• Direction of turn if left turns are to be made
• Time to expect further clearance (EFC) & pertinent additional delay information.
Holding Pattern

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Make all turns during entry and while holding at the LEAST of:
 LEAST of: 3 deg/sec; or 30 deg bank; or 25 deg bank if flight director is used
Compensate for wind by drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs.
• When outbound, triple the inbound drift correction
Determine entry turn from aircraft heading upon arrival at the holding fix;
• +/-5 degrees in hdg is considered to be w/in allowable good operating limits
33
W/in +/-5 degrees:
STANDARD (RIGHT) TURNS
TD if hdg
Radial to -70
Direct if hdg
-70 to -250
Parallel if hdg
-250 to Radial
LEFT TURNS
TD if hdg
Direct if hdg
Parallel if hdg
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Hold East Over Tacan
090 radial
Outbound = 090
090 to 020: TearDrp
020 to 200: Direct
200 – 090: Parra
Radial +0 to +70
Radial +70 to +250
Radial +250 to 0
Parallel Procedure (a)
• Turn to a heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the non-holding side
• Turn to the holding side for more than 180 degrees
• Return to the holding fix or intercept the holding course inbound.
Teardrop Procedure (b)
• Turn outbound for a 30 degree teardrop. Hdg = radial -30 (right turns), +30 (left)
• Stay on the holding side (within the pattern) for a period of one minute
• Turn in the direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound course
Direct Entry Procedure (c)
• Fly directly to the fix and turn to follow the holding pattern.
Timing.
• The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 minute or 1 1/2 minutes
• Subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted, to achieve proper inbound time.
• Timing begins over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs later.
• If abeam can’t be determined, start timing when turn outbound completed
• At VOR station, begin turn outbound at reversal of the to/from indicator
•Speed and entry rules Altitude (MSL)
MAX (KIAS)
Inbound Time
MHA - 6000’
200
1’
6001’ – 14,000
230*
1’
14,001’ and above
265
1.5’
*Holding patterns from 6,001' to 14,000' may be restricted to 210 KIAS.
USAF airfields only - 310 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.
Navy fields only - 230 KIAS maximum, unless otherwise depicted.
NOTE-Non standard max holding airspeed protection - # in or near center of racetrack
34

Endurance speeds and computations
Speed: point of minimum fuel flow, or point of minimum power required (Pr min)
(Note: range = max of speed per fuel flow, max L/D)
Computations:
Specific endurance = flight hours / lb of fuel
Specific endurance = 1 / fuel flow (pounds per hour)
(Note: specific range = nautical miles / lb of fuel or knots / fuel flow)
35
 Ground navigation
o Runway and taxiway lighting and markings
Runway: white markings
 Designators- whole number closest to magnetic heading
 Centerline markings- uniformly striped stripes and gaps
 Aiming point markings- visual aiming point 1,020 feet from the threshold
 Touchdown zone markers- 500 foot increments (3,2,1 bars)
 Side stripe markings- continuous white stripes
 Threshold markings- number of stripes determined by width of runway
 Displaced threshold - located at a point on the runway other than designated beginning
Runway lights
o Runway End Identifier Lights (REIL): pair of synchronized omnidirectional flashing
lights for the positive identification of the approach end of the runway
o Edge Lights: white, except on instrument runways yellow replaces white on the last
2,000 feet. Red lights indicate the end of the runway, green lights visible from the
opposite direction
o Runway Centerline Lighting System (RLCS): 50 foot spacing, white except last 3,000
feet of runway. White alternates with red for next 2,000 feet, and all red last 1,000 feet
o Touchdown zone Lights: indicate the touchdown zone, two rows of transverse light bars
o Taxiway Centerline Lead-Off/On Lights: alternate green and yellow
o Land and Hold Short Lights: row of pulsating white lights across the runway at the hold
short point
Taxiway:
 Continuous yellow centerline and edge markings
 Runway holding position markings whenever intersecting a runway (double yellow on
taxiway side, dashed double yellow on runway side)
Taxiway Lights
o Edge Lights: blue
o Centerline Lights: green
o Clearance Bar Lights: installed at holding positions
o Runway Guard Lights: installed at taxiway-runway intersections, pair of flashing yellow
lights or row of in-pavement lights
o Stop Bar Lights: row of red, unidirectional lights
o ATC clearances and clearance limits
o Clearance: allows an aircraft to proceed under specified traffic conditions within
controlled airspace for the purpose of providing separation between know aircraft.
o Clearance limit: the fix, point, or location to which an aircraft is cleared when issued an
air traffic clearance.
36
37
38
Meteorology
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http://avstop.com/AC/aviationweather
Structure of the atmosphere
78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, and 1% other gases
Troposphere 0 to 12 km
Contains 75% of the gases in the atmosphere.
Where weather occurs. As height increases, temperature decreases.
Tropopause
(Layer) Separates troposphere from stratosphere (12 km (40-45,000’)
Temperature remains fairly constant here.
Jet stream -- very strong winds that blow eastward.
Stratosphere
12 to 50 km
Temp remains fairly constant (-60 degrees Celsius)
Ozone Layer (shield for ultraviolet radiation from sun)
Atmospheric pressure and temperature
Pressure
Force per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of air above
Temperature Unequal heating of the surface modifies air density
Creates circulation patterns, it also causes changes in pressure
Isobars
Pressure readings at different station and draw lines in between
Measured in millibars and are usually drawn at 4-millibar intervals
Resulting pattern reveals the pressure gradient (change over distance_
When isobars are widely scattered, it is considered weak.
“High” is a center of pressure surrounded on all sides by lower pressure
“Low is an area of low pressure surrounded by a higher pressure
“Ridge is a elongated area of high pressure
“Trough” is an elongated area of low pressure
QFE
Field Elevation. Atmospheric pressure at sea level, corrected for temp,
Adjusted to a datum such as airfield elevation
When set on the altimeter it reads height
QNE Atmospheric pressure at sea level in the International Standard Atmosphere
(ISA), equal to 1013.25 mbar or hPa and used as reference for measuring
the pressure altitude
QNH Atmospheric pressure at mean sea level (may be either a local, measured pressure
or a regional forecast pressure (RPS)). When set the altimeter reads altitude
29.92 inHg (inches of mercury) = 1013.25 millibars/hectopascal
Diurnal Variation – change in temperature from day to night
Air moves up – Expands (lower pressure). Air moves down – Compresses (higher press)
This causes a change in temperature – adiabatic heating / cooling (dry air)
Temperature increasing with altitude is known as temperature inversion.
39

Winds and circulations
o Equator is warm – zone of thermal lows -- intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ)
o ITCZ draws in surface air from the subtropics
o This air rises into the upper atmosphere due to convergence and convection
o Hits 14 km (top of the troposphere), and flows horizontally to the N/S poles
o Coriolis force causes the deflection of this moving air in the upper atmosphere
o By 30° Lat - air begins to flow zonally from west to east = Subtropical jet stream
o Also causes the accumulation of air in the upper atmosphere
o Some of the air in the upper atmosphere sinks back to the surface
o = Subtropical high pressure zone.
o From this zone, the surface air travels in two directions
o 1. Some moves back toward the equator completing the Hadley cell.
o This moving air is also deflected by the Coriolis effect to create the
Northeast Trades (right deflection) and Southeast Trades (left deflection).
o 2. Some moves towards the poles
o Deflected by Coriolis acceleration producing the Westerlies
o 30 to 60° North and South
o Upper air winds blow generally towards the poles.
o Coriolis force deflects this to flow west to east forming the polar jet stream
o
o
o
o
o
60° North and South.
Subtropical Westerlies collide with cold air traveling from the poles
Frontal uplift and the creation of the subpolar lows or mid-latitude cyclones
Small portion of this lifted air is sent back into the Ferrel cell at top of the trop.
Most is directed to the polar vortex where it moves down to create the polar high
Hadley Cell: 0 to 30° N/S, Rising air (intertropical convergence zone) at the equator and
descending air (subtropical highs) at 30° North and South.
Ferrel Cell
30 to 60° Circulation cell
Polar Cell
60 to 90°. Vertical air flow in the Polar cell consists of rising air at the polar
font and descending air at the polar vortex
40
o Wind is caused by air flowing from high pressure to low pressure
o Since the Earth is rotating, air is deflected to the right (in the Northern hemi)
o Wind flows mostly around the high and low pressure areas
o Wind "feeling the Earth turn underneath it" is important for very large and
long-lived pressure systems.
o For small, short-lived systems - the wind will flow directly high to low
o The closer the high and low pressure areas, the stronger the "pressure gradient"
o Stronger the gradient – Stronger winds
o The closer the isobars – Stronger winds
o Curved around High – Stronger winds (anticyclonically)
o Friction from the ground slows the wind down
o Most pronounced at night
o Convective mixing has stopped
o Wind allows atmosphere to move excess heat around
o Away from the surface of the Earth
 Sunlight causes an excess buildup
o Away from warm regions (usually the tropics)
o In tropics – trade winds, monsoons, and hurricanes transport heat
o Outside tropics - Extratropical cyclones transport heat
THE WIND AFFECTS THE EARTH'S ROTATION
Winter, the stronger westerly winds in the Northern Hemisphere, combined
with frictional drag at surface, produce a very small increase in the rotation

Clouds and moisture; fog and low clouds
o Moisture accounts for a small percentage of the total volume of the atmosphere
o Generally if air is moist, then poor or severe weather can occur
o Clouds are formed when air is cooled to its saturation point
o Very small droplets of water or, if cold enough, ice crystals
o The droplets condense (subliminate) on small particles of matter
 Dust, salt from sea spray, or products of combustion.
o Low to the ground = fog
o
o
o
o
Nimbus
Stratus
Cumulus
Cirrus
Produce rain
Sheet-like (layer) (wide)
Puffy
Whispy
41
Low Clouds
Stratus
Stable air near the surface due to cooling from below
Nimbostratus Gray or black clouds that can be more than several thousand of feet
thick,
Widespread areas of rain or snow
Stratocumulus White, puffy clouds that form as stable air is lifted
Middle Clouds
Altostratus
clouds are flat, dense could that cover a wide area.
Altocumulus Patchy clouds of uniform appearance that often, when altostratus break up
High Clouds (>20k AGL)
Ice crystals, and seldom pose a serious turbulence or icing hazard
Cirrus
Stable air at high altitudes
Cirrostratus Thin, white clouds that often form in long bands or sheets
Cirrocumulus White patchy clouds that look like cotton
Fog
Base within 50 feet of the ground.
Ground fog – less than 20 feet deep
Radiation fog - over low-lying, fairly flat surfaces on clear, calm, humid nights.
Advection fog - when a lower layer of warm, moist air moves over a cooler surface
Upslope fog - moist, stable air is forced up a sloping land mass
Steam fog – (sea smoke) cold, dry air moves over comparatively warmer water

Atmospheric stability and turbulence
o Stability
o Stability is the atmosphere’s resistance to vertical motion
o A stable atmosphere makes it more difficult to move vertically
o An unstable atmosphere, convection is the rule.
o Stability of an air mass is decreased my warming from below.
o Turbulence
1. Near thunderstorms
2. Low Level (<15k): surface heating or friction.
a. Mechanical turbulence (buildings or rough terrain)
b. Convective turbulence / Thermal turbulence, typically in the daytime
happens when air is heated by the ground.
c. Frontal turbulence occurs in the narrow zone just ahead of a fast-moving
cold front where updrafts can reach 1,000 fpm.
d. Wake turbulence is caused by other a/c.
3. Clear Air Turbulence
a. Interaction of layers of air with differing wind speeds, convective currents,
or obstructions to normal wind flow. It develops near the jet stream.
4. Mountain Wave Turbulence - Stable air crosses a mountain barrier
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a. Air moving across this surface causes circulation or a rotor.
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
Air Masses and Frontal systems
 Airmass: Large body of air with fairly uniform temperature and moisture content
o Polar or tropical to identify their temperature characteristics
o Continental or maritime to identify their moisture content
o Modification – as an airmass moves out of its source region, it is modified by the
temperature and moisture of the area over which it moves.
o Depends on speed, nature of the region depth of the airmass, and
temperature difference between the airmass and the new surface.
o Warming from below – As an airmass mover over a warmer surface, its lower layers
are heated and vertical movement of the air develops.
o Fronts:
Boundary between the airmasses is called a front
o Cold front:
Cold air is moving to displace warmer air
o Warm front:
Warm air is replacing cold air
o Stationary front: No movement
o Occluded front:
Cold air and warm air front merge
o Most easily recognized discontinuities across a front is the change in temperature
o When flying across a front, you will notice a change in wind direction and windspeed.

Thunderstorms and Windshear
 Thunderstorms: 3 conditions must be present
o Instability - air that has a tendency to toward instability
o Lifting action - some type of lifting action
o Relatively high moisture content.
 2 types
o Airmass TS – scattered, summer afternoons, coastal nights
o Severe TS – Gusts of 50+ kts, Hail ¾”, Tornadoes.
Single-cell – lasts less than 1 hour
Super-cell – lasts about 2 hours
Multi-cell – a compact cluster of TS cells in different stages of development
Cause the duration to be much longer than any individual cell
o Squall line: Multicells form a line, 50 to 300 miles ahead of a fast-moving cold front,
Hail, destructive winds, tornadoes, etc.
o
Life Cycle
o
Cumulus Stage - Initial stage - updraft air reaches condensation point.
Expand vertically (30k) and laterallu (5-10 mi). Continuous updrafts.
o
Mature Stage - First drop of precipitation reaches the ground. Cloud tops
Exceed 60,000 feet, Anvil shape from strong winds.
TS is strongest toward the end of the mature stage. Rain will be the heaviest
Lightning abundant Hail, strong winds, tornadoes may form.
o
Dissipating Stage - End of a TS. Precipitation falls through and breaks it
up, Humidity in the air drops and the precipitation ends -- Downdrafts.
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
o
o
o
o
o
o
o




Ice & Icing
Takeoff Clean Wing (no Ice, Snow, Frost)
Found in Visible moisture between +5° and -20° C or colder (usually +2 to -10)
Stay 3k below or 8k above freezing level
Climb through Rime, Descend with Clear.
AIMET – Moderate Ice.
SIGMTE – Severe Ice.
Freezing rain usually produces the highest rate of ice accumulation
Thrust and lift are reduced, drag and weight is increased
Rime – Opaque - Instantaneous freezing of small super cooled droplets (-15 to 20C)
Clear – Most serious. Adheres to jet and difficult to remove. (0 to -10C)
Large super cooled water droplets which are in cumulus clouds / frzng rain
4 Levels: Trace, Light, Moderate, Severe
WX depiction charts, radr summary, maps, winds aloft, prog, constant
pressure charts
o Weather depiction chart
o Computer-human generated - METAR reports (01 Zulu each day, 3-hour intervals)
o Observation used is the latest METAR (not the one closest to the stated time)
o Some observation info may be omitted, but all info is to determine IFR/Mvfr/VFR
o Broad overview of the observed flying category conditions
o Right bracket ( ] ) indicates obtained by automated system only
o Total sky cover, cloud height (AGL, hundreds of ft) or ceiling
o Weather and obstructions to vision, and visibility (left of station)
o Visibility of 5nm or less (sm and fractions)
o Fronts and Troughs analysis from preceding hour (except 10Z and 23Z)
IFR
<1,000 feet & 3 miles
Hatched (lined through) area outlined by a smooth line.
MVFR
(Marginal VFR)
1 - 3,000 feet, 3-5 miles
Non-hatched outlined by a smooth line.
VFR
3,000’ or higher, vis > 5 miles
Not outlined
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o Radar Summary Chart
o Computer-generated graphic of automated radar weather reports (SDs)
o Areas of precipitation: Type, intensity, configuration, coverage, echo top, cell movement
o Severe weather watches are plotted if they are in effect
o Hourly 35 minutes past each hour
o Echo Type (Precipitation) – Determined by computer model (not from METAR)
o Echo Intensity (radar return) – Contours
o Six precipitation intensity levels are reduced into three contour intervals
o Grouped like: Light to Moderate intensity (can’t determine which one)
o Intensity is coded for frozen precipitation (i.e., snow or snow showers). Trend not coded
o Echo Configuration (arrangement) & Coverage (area)
o 3 designated arrangements: LINE, AREA, CELL of echoes
o Coverage depicted by Hatched area inside the contours
 If 8/10 coverage or more, the line solid (SLD) at both ends
o Echo Tops (from radar and satellite data)
o Approximate max height of the precipitation in hundreds of feet MSL
o Tops are entered above a short line, with the top height displayed
o Assumed that all precipitation displayed on the chart is reaching the surface
o Echo movement
o Arrow with the speed in knots entered as a number at the top of the arrow head.
o Line or area movement is no longer indicated on the chart.
o Severe WX Watch Areas
o Outlined by heavy dashed lines, usually in the form of a large rectangular box.
o Tornado watches and Severe TS watches = Type and Watch number depicted
 “WS0005” = The 5th severe thunderstorm watch issued in the year
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Winds and Temperatures Aloft
6k -18k every 3,000
24, 30, 34, 39k (see const press)
Temp in degrees C (on right)
Wind in knots
Direction – Arrow with 1 digit
Ex. Arrow to E with a 6 = 060
60 kts of wind, 060°
-31 Celcius
Significant Wx (Prognostic Charts)
Manually and computer-prepared
12 and 24 hour
Sfc, Low and High level charts (24k)
CLOUDS
ISO
Less than 1/8th Coverage
420 – Max tops at 42k
th
th
OCNL 1/8 to 4/8 Coverage
XXX – bottoms below 24k
th
th
FRQ 5/8 to 8/8 Coverage
EMBD Embedded
CB Implies thunderstorm – implies hail, moderate or greater turbulence, and icing
TURBULENCE
^
Mod
Dbl
Severe
SQUALL Line
33k down to below 24k
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Constant Pressure Charts
Approximate temp, wind, dew point
All info depicted is at the specified pressure
millibar (mb) / hectoPascal (hPa) charts
Twice daily
850 mb/hPa, 700 mb/hPa,
500 mb/hPa, 300 mb/hPa,
250 mb/hPa, and 200 mb/hPa
700 mb/hPa = approx 10,000 feet MSL
300 mb/hPa = approx. 30,000 feet
250 mb/hPa = approx. 34,000 feet
200 mb/hPa = approx.. 39,000 feet
TT = Temp
T-D =Temp Dew spread
HGT = Actual heigh (mtrs)
Of pressure surface
Hc Height Change in
Thens of meters
BC - patches
BL - blowing
DR - low drifting
FZ - freezing
MI - shallow
SH - shower(s)
TS - thunderstorm

Aviation weather reports (PDF Guide)
o Terminal forecasts, area forecasting (ATIS, METAR, etc.)
RA - rain
FG - fog (< 5/8 mi)
o METAR - ROUTINE WEATHER REPORT
GR - hail (> 1/4")
BR - mist (5/8 - 6 mi)
 Type of report
SPECI or routine
DZ - drizzle
PY - spray
 2. Station designator
GS - small hail
SA - sand
SN - snow
FU - smoke
 3. Time of report
Zulu (UTC)
PE
ice
pellets
DU - dust
 4. Wind
kts, variable if 60 deg +
SG - snow grains
HZ - haze
 5. Visibility
Statute miles (5SM)
IC - ice crystals
VA - volcanic ash
RVR (R32L/1200FT)
SQ - squall
 6. Weather and obstructions to visibility
SS - sandstorm
Intensity (-+)/ Proximity / Descriptor / Precip /
DS - duststorm
Visibility obstruction / Other
PO - dust/sand whirls
 7. Sky condition (bases in hundreds of ft)
FC – funnel cloud
/tornado/waterspout
o SCT 1/8 – 4/8
o BKN 5/8 – 7/8
Ceiling
o OVC 8/8
Ceiling
o CB or TCU (Towering Cumulus)
o VV006 Vertical visibility 600’
 8. Temperature and dew point (Celcius)
o M04
-4 C
 9. Altimeter setting (in Hg)
 10. Remarks RMK REFZDZB45 WS TKO RW04R
Remarks, REcent wx, FZDZ Began 45’ after the hour
Wind Shear during TaKe Off RunWay 04 Right
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o
o
o
o
TAF
4 times a day
TYPE / LOCATION / ISSUANCE TIME / VALID TIME / FORECAST
TYPE: Routine or Amended AMD, Corrected COR, Delayed RTD
PROB40 (40% probably)
TEMPO HHHH
Start hour to finish hour
FM HH
From hour
BECMG HHHH
Becoming (gradual change) between hours of HH and HH
o TIME: DDHHMM
o WIND / VISIBILITY / WEATHER / SKY CONDITION
TAF KMEM 121720Z 1818 - TAF issued for Memphis, TN on the 12th at 1720Z and valid
for a 24 hour period from 1800Z to 1800Z.
o AREA Forecast (FA)
• Over several states (6 areas in CONUS)
• 3 times a day for a 12-hour forecast and 6 hour outlook (18 total hours)
• No annotation on Alt = MSL. Else CIG = ceiling and AGL = AGL
o Flight weather advisories, pilot reports
 Convective SIGMET (WST)
 SIGMET (WS)
 AIRMET (WA).
 Pilot reports can generate Urgent Center Weather Advisory (UCWA)
 Center Weather Advisory (CWA)
KC3 CWA 032140
3rd CWA form K.City DDHHMM
ZKC CWA 301 VALID UNTIL 032340
301 – 3rd phonemoneal, 1st issuance

SIGMETS and AIRMETS
o AIRMET (Airmen's Meteorological Information) -- Of Interest to ALL
Hazardous to limited capability a/c orr non-instrument rated pilots
Every 6 hours & valid for 6 hours: Mod icing, turbulence, 30+ sfc winds, IFR
(S) Sierra – Mountain Obscuration or IFR) less than 1000 or 3
50% of an area at one time. Extensive mountain obscuration
(T) Tango – (Turbulence) Mod turbulence, sustained winds of 30 kts+ at SFC
(Z) Zulu – (Icing) Moderate icing, freezing levels
o SIGMET (Significant Meteorological Information) -- Of Interest to ALL
Safety of all aircraft -- issued in alphabetic order from N to Y, (not S or T)
Non-Convective – Severe or greater icing, IMC, dust, sand, volc ash, valid for 4 hr
(WST) Convective – TS over 3,000 sq mi, line of storms >60nm and/or
embedded storms affecting any area for >30min. (valid 2 hours)
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
Weather radar
o Precipitation, wind, and weather systems
o 3 Types
o WSR-88D NEXRAD Doppler radar
• Surrounding communities of impending weather
o FAA terminal doppler weather radar (TDWR) - severe weather alerts and warnings
• Wind shear, gust fronts, and heavy precipitation,
o Airport surveillance radar
• Primary to detect aircraft
• Also detects the location and intensity of precipitation around an airport
Climb Segments:
o First segment- from the point which the aircraft becomes airborne until it
reaches the 35-foot height at the end of the runway distance required, speed V2
o Second segment- (most restrictive) from the 35-foot height to 400 AGL, V2
speed, flaps set for takeoff, gear retracted. Provides 2.4% climb gradient
o Acceleration segment- begins at 400 AGL and accelerating from V2 to the
Vfs speed before climb is continued. Flaps are raised, takeoff power
o Final segment- 400 to 1,500 AGL with maximum continuous power. 1.2%
climb gradient
-------------FROM ATP Study
Icing increases stall speed, decreases stall AOA
reduce lift by 30%, increase drag by 40% (worse on drag)
Clear Air Turbulence
Most likely – const press charts show 20 kt isotachs less than 150 nm apart
Moderate CAT = 40 kts per 150 miles (double)
CAT from mnt wave – 5000’ above tropopause
Likely location – upper trough on polar side of jetstream
In TS – maintain const Attitude (don’t change altitude)
Microbursts
Max downdrafts – 600 fpm / Peak intensity windspeed change – 45 knots
“Severe” wind shear – Rapid change of wind direct 15 knots a/s, or 500 fpm vvi
Precipitation = light, mod, heave, extreme (no severe…that’s for TS)
Ground based inversion – poor visibility
Temperature inversion – A stable layer of air (if it were unstable, it wouldn’t exist)
Freezing rain – a layer of warmer air exists above
Common location for inversion - Stratosphere
Temp of air changes by compression or expansion - Adiabatic
Station pressure = actual pressure at field elevation
What causes Adiabatic cooling – Expansion of air as it rises
Very strong turbulence clouds – standing lenticular
What happens when passing through a front into colder air – Press increases
Stability of atmosphere determined – ambient temp lapse rate
What signals mature stage of TS – Start of rain at surface
Most likely to produce funnel clouds/tornadoes – Cold Front/Squall line TS
Only cloud types in a TAF - CB
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