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Prepared by Patty Bostwick-Taylor,
Florence-Darlington Technical College
CHAPTER
1
The Human Body:
An Orientation
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The Human Body—An Orientation
Anatomy
•Study of the structure and shape of the body
and its parts
Physiology
•Study of how the body and its parts work or
function
Form follows function…
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Molecules
Smooth muscle cell
2 Cellular level
Cells are made
up of molecules.
Atoms
1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Blood
vessels
Heart
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues.
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Blood
vessel
(organ)
Cardio–
vascular
system
6 Organismal level
Human organisms are
made up of many organ
systems.
5 Organ system level
Organ systems consist of
different organs that work
together closely.
Figure 1.1
Organ Systems
• Integumentary
• Skeletal
• Muscular
• Nervous
• Endocrine
• Cardiovascular
• Lymphatic
• Respiratory
• Digestive
• Urinary
• Reproductive
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Integumentary
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Skeletal
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Muscular
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Nervous
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Endocrine
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Cardiovascular
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Respiratory
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Digestive
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Urinary
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Lymphatic
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Reproductive
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Necessary Life Functions
1. Maintain boundaries
2. Movement
• Locomotion
• Movement of substances
3. Responsiveness
• Ability to sense changes and react
4. Digestion
• Breakdown and absorption of nutrients
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Necessary Life Functions
5. Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body
• Break down complex molecules into smaller ones
• Build larger molecules from smaller ones
• Produces energy
• Regulated by hormones
6. Excretion
• Eliminates waste from metabolic reactions
• Wastes may be removed in urine or feces
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Necessary Life Functions
7. Reproduction
• Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
• Produces future generation
8. Growth
• Increases cell size and number of cells
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Survival Needs
1. Nutrients
• Chemicals for energy and cell building
• Includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and
minerals
2. Oxygen
• Required for chemical reactions
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Survival Needs
3. Water
• 60 to 80 percent of body weight
• Most abundant chemical in the human body
• Provides for metabolic reaction
4. Stable body temperature
• 37°C (98°F)
5. Atmospheric pressure
• Must be appropriate for gas exchange
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Homeostasis
•Homeostasis—maintenance of a stable
internal environment
• A dynamic state of equilibrium
• Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain
life
• Maintained by feedback mechanisms
•Homeostatic imbalance
• A disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease
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3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
1 Stimulus
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sent along efferent
pathway to effector.
Effector
5 Response
detects change.
produces
change in
variable.
4 Output: Information
VARIABLE (in homeostasis)
of effector feeds
back to reduce
the effect of
stimulus and
returns variable
to homeostatic
level.
Figure 1.4
Feedback Mechanisms
•Negative feedback
• Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
• Shuts off the original stimulus, or reduces its intensity
• Works like a household thermostat
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Negative
Feedback
Mechanism
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Feedback Mechanisms
•Positive feedback
• Increases the original stimulus to push the variable
farther
• In the body this only occurs in blood clotting and during
the birth of a baby
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Positive
Feedback
Mechanism
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The Language of Anatomy
•Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding
• Exact terms are used for position, direction,
regions and structures
• Anatomical position serves as an initial
reference point regardless of the body’s actual
position.
• Body is erect with feet parallel and slightly
apart, arms hanging by the sides, and palms
facing forward
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Regional Terms
•Identify specific regions of the body.
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Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Buccal
Oral
Mental
Cervical
Thoracic
Sternal
Axillary
Upper limb
Acromial
Deltoid
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Abdominal
Umbilical
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin)
Manus (hand)
Digital
Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Pubic (genital)
Crural (leg)
KEY:
Fibular
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Digital
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(a) Anterior/Ventral
Figure 1.5a
Cephalic
Occipital (back
of head)
Upper limb
Acromial
Cervical
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal
Back (dorsal)
Scapular
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Vertebral
Lumbar
Sacral
Manus (hand)
Digital
Gluteal
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular
KEY:
Thorax
Pedal (foot)
Calcaneal
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Plantar
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(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Figure 1.5b
Directional Terms
• Explains where one body structure is in relation to another.
Superior (cranial or
cephalad): toward the head
end or upper part of a
structure or the body; above
Inferior (caudal): away from
the head end or toward the
lower part of a structure or
the body; below
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Ventral (anterior): toward or at
the front of the body; in front of
Dorsal (posterior): toward or at
the backside of the body;
behind
Superficial: toward or at
the body surface
Deep: away from the
body surface; more
internal
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Table 1.1
Medial: toward or at the
midline of the body; on the
inner side of
Lateral: away from the
midline of the body; on the
outer side of
Intermediate: between a
more medial and a more
lateral structure
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Table 1.1
Proximal: close to the
origin of the body part or
point of attachment to a
limb to the body trunk
Distal: farther from the
origin of a body part or
the point of attachment
of a limb to the body
trunk
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Table 1.1
Body Planes and Sections
1. A sagittal section divides the body (or organ)
into left and right parts.
• A median (midsagittal) section divides the body
(or organ) into equal left and right parts.
2. A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body
(or organ) into anterior and posterior parts.
3. A transverse, or cross, section divides the
body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts.
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(a) Median (midsagittal)
Vertebral
column
Rectum
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Intestines
(b) Frontal (coronal) plane
Right
lung Heart
Liver
Left
lung
Stomach Spleen
(c) Transverse plane
Liver Aorta
Spinal
cord
Spleen
Subcutaneous Stomach
fat layer
Figure 1.6
Body Cavities
•Dorsal body cavity
•Cranial cavity houses the brain
•Spinal cavity houses the spinal cord
•Ventral body cavity
•Thoracic cavity houses heart, lungs, and
others
•Abdominopelvic cavity houses digestive
system and most urinary system organs
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Cranial
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Spinal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Diaphragm
KEY:
Dorsal body cavity
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Ventral body cavity
Figure 1.7
Right upper
quadrant
(RUQ)
Left upper
quadrant
(LUQ)
Right lower
quadrant
(RLQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
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Figure 1.8
Diaphragm
Stomach
Liver
Right
Left
hypohypoEpigastric
chondriac
chondriac
region
region
region
Right
lumbar
region
Umbilical
region
Left
lumbar
region
Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac
(inguinal)
(pubic)
(inguinal)
region
region
region
Gallbladder
Ascending
colon of large
intestine
Small intestine
Cecum
Appendix
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes
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Transverse
colon of large
intestine
Descending
colon of large
intestine
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Urinary
bladder
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions
showing the superficial organs
Figure 1.9a-b