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P. Harsevoort 09
HRE331/2 WORLD RELIGIONS RESOURCE PACK
JUDAISM
HISTORY
TIMELINE OF MAJOR EVENTS IN ISRAELITE HISTORY, FROM THE EXODUS TO THE END OF SECOND TEMPLE JUDAISM
The exodus from Egypt and the giving of the law
on Mt. Sinai; worshiping the golden calf
The time of the Judges
The united kingdom of Israel under the Kings
Saul, David, and Solomon
The temple is built in Jerusalem
Israel is divided into the two kingdoms of Israel
and Judah
Baal worship becomes the official religion of
Israel
The Assyrians sack Samaria and put an end to the
kingdom of Israel
The Babylonians end the kingdom of Judah by
sacking Jerusalem; the Babylonian exile
The Babylonian exile ends and Judah is restored
under Persian rule; the temple in Jerusalem is
rebuilt
The time of the last biblical prophet, named
Malachi
The conquest of Alexander the Great and the
beginning of Greek rule
Antiochus Epiphanes sacrifices a pig in the
temple; the Maccabees revolt; the time of the
Hasmonean kingdom
Roman rule under Herod the Great; renovation of
the temple
The Romans destroy Jerusalem and the temple
Approximately 1450 B.C.
Approximately 1400-1050 B.C.
Approximately 1050-931 B.C.
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Approximately 975 B.C.
931 B.C.
Approximately 900 B.C.
722 B.C.
587 B.C.
537 B.C.
Approximately 440 B.C.
332 B.C.
166 B.C.
37 B.C.
A.D. 70
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JUDAISM FROM THE 1ST-CENTURY TO 1750
1ST-CENTURY JEWISH GROUPS AND THEIR SURVIVAL AFTER THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TEMPLE IN A.D. 70
The Sadducees, one of the five first-century parties in Judaism, were closely identified with the
priestly office and, under the Romans, held the political reins. They focused on temple sacrifices and the
things of this world, not believing in angels, predestination, life after death, and ignoring messianism. It
is likely that the Sadducees constituted a wealthy aristocracy among the Jews. Because this party was so
closely linked with priesthood and temple rituals, and depended on the Romans to support its authority,
the destruction of the temple in A.D. 70 by the Romans proved to be its destruction as well.
The Pharisees, as a group, were most active in applying the Old Testament law to the new
situation the Jews found themselves facing. Originally, at least, the Pharisees were scribes who copied
out the Scriptures. Eventually they became experts on the law and its interpretation. They became
teachers, called rabbis, and were organized into differing schools. The law that the Pharisees dealt with
did not focus on temple rituals, as did the Sadducees, but rather on living every day as a Jew. Their
approach was to “build a fence around the law” by rigorously interpreting it. Thus, if a Jew broke one of
the laws of the Pharisees he had only broken a human interpretation and the law itself remained intact.
The Pharisees, contra the Sadducees, believed in angels, predestination, and were messianic. After A.D.
70 and the destruction of the temple the Pharisees were in a perfect position in Judaism. Their focus on
everyday Jewish life was not founded on the existence of the temple. Their specialty of applying the law
in new situations was earnestly required if the Jews were to remain Jewish. And so, from A.D. 70 until
today the Pharisees have assumed the leadership of Judaism.
A third group is the Essenes. This group split off from mainstream Judaism, perhaps over the
combined priest-kingship office of the Hasmoneans. The Essenes were supported by Herod, likely
because of their mutual dislike for Hasmonean rule. Essenes obeyed the law even more strictly than did
the Pharisees. They lived in small communes (i.e. Qumran), and believed that they were the only true
Jews left. They waited for God to vindicate them, in exclusion of everyone else. Never having much
popularity or support, the Essenes slowly faded out of existence after A.D. 70.
A fourth group, mentioned in the New Testament, is the Herodians. They might have been a
political group that supported Herod’s monarchical rule, or a religious group favored by Herod. If the
latter is true Herodians might be just another name for Essenes. Nothing is known for sure about this
group besides its name.
Lastly, the Zealots were an intensely nationalistic group, dedicated to the independence of Jews
from the Romans. Before A.D. 70 the Zealots carried out terrorist activities that eventually caused allout war. Being no match for the Roman Empire, the Zealots had little chance of success and survival.
They made their famous last stand at Masada in A.D. 73, where, instead of being captured by Rome, 956
people committed suicide.
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THE DEVELOPMENT OF RABBINIC JUDAISM
Although there are gaps in the history, it is likely that Pharisaic Judaism eventually became the
rabbinic Judaism that has lasted from the classical era to the modern day. The development of rabbinic
Judaism centers around canonization and interpretation of the canon.
The first step in the development of the writings of Rabbinic Judaism was the formation of canon.
After A.D. 90 a number of rabbis met in the town of Yavneh for this purpose. They examined every book
that had been in use as inspired scripture, and eventually accepted those books that made up the
scripture in Palestinian Judaism. This canon is identical in content, but not order, to the Christian Old
Testament.
The second step in this development was the collection of interpretations of scripture and its finer
points. To this end, groups of rabbis met over several decades in the town of Tiberius and wrote down
the minute details of applying the laws. The end result was called the Mishnah, a book divided into six
categories as follows: Seeds, dealing with agriculture and prayer; Feasts, covering holy days and the
writing of scrolls; Women, concerning marriage and vows; Damages, which covers civil and criminal law
as well as idolatry; Holy Matters, sacrificial and temple law; and finally Purities, covering ritual
cleanliness. Under these headings numerous questions and situations concerning obedience to law are
dealt with in detail. Conflicting viewpoints and interpretations are included. The Mishnah was
completed circa A.D. 200. This genre in Judaism, dealing with applying the laws, is the "Halakic" tradition.
The Halakic Mishnah was combined with the Gemara, a collection of stories which illustrated
applications of the law in the narrative Haggadah tradition, and the Torah to form the Talmud. The
Talmud is made up of 55 tractates, each of which begins with a passage from the Torah. This is followed
by a lengthier section of interpretation from the Mishnah and then the lengthiest section of analysis
from the Gemara. The Talmud is the authority on law and tradition in such areas as dress, diet, prayer,
et cetera.
JEWISH MESSIANISM FROM A.D. 136 TO THE 18TH-CENTURY
The year A.D. 136 was a horrible one for the Jewish people. Bar Kochba, leader of a Zealot group
who some thought was the Messiah, started the conflict with the Romans that ended with the defeat of
the Jews, the loss of their homeland and destruction of Jerusalem. Although a few Jews remained in
Israel, for the most part for the rest of this period the Jews were an exiled people.
For centuries afterwards the Jews experienced periods of safety followed by periods of
persecution. They first found security in Babylon under the Persian Sassanid kingdom. For the most
part the Persians left the Jews alone. However, when in the seventh century Shi'ite Islam came to Persia
the Jews left the area and moved to Spain where the Muslims were more tolerant.
In Europe there were two kinds of Jews: Sephardic Jews from Spain, influenced by the Arabs and
the Turks, and Ashkenazic Jews from northern Europe who remained distinct from their Gentile
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neighbors. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella, who had made Spain a Christian country, expelled all the
Jews from their land. Most of these exiled Jews moved East and lived peacefully under the Turks.
The tragedy of 1492 increased messianic expectation. Sabbatai Zevi came to fulfill these
expectations. A Jewish student of mysticism from Smyrna, Sabbatai seems to have suffered from
bipolar disorder as he went from depressed resignation to states of manic rapture in which he would
commit acts that "bordered on blasphemy." He claimed he was the Messiah and Jews everywhere
agreed. The movement climaxed when Sabbatai Zevi made the trip to Constantinople in order to
convert the Sultan to Judaism. Instead, the Messiah himself converted to Islam, an act which severely
impacted Judaism for the next centuries.
MODERN JUDAISM
After the disaster that was Sabbatai Zevi something in Judaism had to change. This change took
various forms in various groups, both orthodox and unorthodox.
Orthodox Hasidism was begun as a semi-humanistic optimism by Israel ben Eliezer, who was
known as Baal Shem Tov. Instead of rigidly following tradition, Baal Shem Tov taught that God is found
in the person and could be worshiped joyfully and within modern culture. However, instead of following
Tov's optimistic modernization his followers eventually the outward form of his practice and ended up in
exchanging one tradition for another. Hasidism is orthodox, in that it follows the laws of the Torah, but
it does not see the law as the doorway to God. The Hasidic movement came to be organized into local
communities in certain villages. Because of persecution many of these groups emigrated to America
and Israel.
Conservative Judaism is characterized by adhering to the law while adapting to contemporary
culture. It holds a middle position between Hasidism and Reform Judaism. The basic points of Jewish
law, i.e. diet, prayer, ethics, are kept but in dress and worship things are more contemporary.
Conservative Judaism, begun by Zecharias Frankel in Germany, has done well in the United States.
Yemenite Jews lived in isolation on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula for years and thus
have a unique culture (for example, they dress in blue and white stripes). In the 1940s the entire group
was transported to Israel.
The Karaite tradition rejected the Talmud 1300 years ago, instead claiming that only the Torah,
not its interpretation, was authoritative. Originally Karaite Jews were found in Babylon, but now they
are located in the old City of Jerusalem.
Falasha Jews in Ethiopia did not even know that there were other Jews elsewhere. Like the
Yemenites, they develop their own traditions, customs, and culture which they had preserved since
before the birth of Christ. In the 1980s, during the famine in Ethiopia, the Falasha Jews were airlifted to
Israel.
All of these branches of Judaism are orthodox in that they all follow the Jewish law as found in the
Torah, in most cases with the addition of interpretation found in the Talmud. Orthodox, from the Greek
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for "right speech" or "correct thought," usually describes religious groups that subscribe to certain
fundamental beliefs. Orthodox Judaism is based on acceptance of the authority of Scripture. However,
with Judaism it might be more accurate to speak of orthopraxis, "right practice," than orthodoxy.
The Reform movement in Judaism rejects the authority of the Talmud. That is not to say that
those who follow the Talmud are wrong, but rather that no one must follow its authority. Instead,
Judaism for Reform Jews is in a state of continuous development. This movement, begun by German
intellectual Moses Mendelssohn, does not seek a Messiah but instead sees the Jews as the Messiah
making the world better. Reform Jews worship in a temple, and the services are based on Protestant
Christian forms. Theologically, Reform Jews are quite liberal, accepting biblical criticism and supporting
issues like abortion rights.
The small Reconstructionist movement, invented by an American rabbi named Mordecai Kaplan,
views the Jewish religion as simply one aspect of or step in the evolution of Jewish culture. In
Reconstructionist Judaism religious Judaism is integrated into all parts of life.
Since being Jewish does not only mean believing in the Jewish religion, but includes ethnic and
traditional elements and heritage, there is room for secular Judaism. The two are not antagonistic, but
complement each other. For example, secular Jews financially support the causes of religious Jews. In
secular Judaism, tradition supersedes religion.
BELIEFS
Judaism, by and large, stresses the centrality of deeds and proper observance of the
commandments more than it does systematic statements of faith, orthopraxis rather than orthodoxy.
Still, creeds have been produced that sum up the core beliefs of Orthodox Jews at least. None of these
creeds has been accepted by Judaism as a whole, by council or in any other way, so they do not
characterize the beliefs of every Jew, but they are helpful to gain an understanding of the heart of
modern Judaism. The 13 Principles of Faith written by Moses Maimonides in the 12th century is the
most significant Jewish statement of faith, as follows:
1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator and Guide of
everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make, and will make all things.
2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that there is no
unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, who was, and is, and will be.
3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body, and that He is
free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no (physical) comparison to Him
whatsoever.
4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the first and the last.
5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him alone, it is right
to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.
6. I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.
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7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon him, was true,
and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded him and those who followed
him.
8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is the same that
was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.
9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged, and that there will never be any
other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.
10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the deeds of human
beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, "Who fashioned the hearts of them all, Who
comprehends all their actions" (Ps. 33:15).
11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those who keep His
commandments and punishes those that transgress them.
12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may tarry,
nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming.
13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when it shall please
the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted for ever and ever.
Some key elements of Jewish belief are a strict monotheism, the authority of the Torah (and often the
Talmud), and the idea that God will judge every person’s deeds.
PRACTICES AND TRADITIONS
KOSHER
The dietary kosher laws are based on some parts of Leviticus and their interpretation. In the first
place distinction is made between clean and unclean animals. Among clean animals are ruminants with
split hooves (cows, goats, and sheep), some birds (chickens, ducks, and geese), and aquatic animals with
scales (common kinds of fish). Unclean animals include invertebrates, pigs, horses, dogs, cats, reptiles,
raptors, crustaceans, and shellfish. Plants and eggs are neutral, and vegetables are basically unrestricted.
For a clean animal to be kosher a must be killed quickly and the blood must be drained from it
immediately. For this reason kosher animals are usually left in salt for a time.
An interesting example of Halakic interpretation surrounds passages such as Exodus 23:19 which
prohibits boiling a kid in its mother's milk. This was taken to mean that dairy products and meat
products must not be consumed at the same time. In order to follow this law Orthodox families have
one set of cutlery and dishes for meat and another set for dairy products. In practice, one who has had
milk or cheese must wait about an hour before eating meat, whereas someone who has consumed meat
must wait till the next meal before having a dairy product.
SYNAGOGUE & PRAYER LIFE
Orthodox Jewish men pray morning, noon, and night and do so facing Jerusalem if possible.
Before praying the regular daily prayers a Jewish man will wrap a fringed, blue and white prayer shawl
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called a tallit around his head or shoulders depending on his traditional background. Next, small black
boxes which contain four Scripture passages called phylacteries in English or tefillin in Hebrew are tied
to the head and left hand. The leather strap attaches one to the head, and for the hand leather straps
wrap around the arm seven times and around the fingers three times. This tradition is based on God's
command to bind the law to their foreheads and hands in Deuteronomy 6.
The regular prayer, called the Amidah, is a series of God's blessings found in Scripture. When
praying Orthodox Jewish men bow or sway rhythmically, symbolizing reverence and movement between
the Torah and the world.
On the Sabbath Jewish men wear the tallit but not the tefillin.
Prayer for Orthodox Jewish women is less formal. They wear no tefillin, and traditionally their
prayer is focused on the home. However, in Reform Judaism women participate fully and the traditional
three prayers for men are dispensed with.
The synagogue, where the Jews worship together, typically contains the ark, the bema, and a
menorah. Orthodox synagogues also include a separate area for women to worship in.
The congregation faces the ark, a niche or cabinet containing the Torah scrolls placed at the front
of the room. The bema is the raised platform on which the service is conducted, and can be either front
or centre in the room. The menorah, a symbolic seven branched candelabra, is lit at the beginning of
the service.
The cantor leads the congregation in song, and in this way brings the congregation together
especially in special services like writings and funerals where music plays a central role. He must be an
expert in the music of his tradition.
However, the synagogue is more than a place of worship. It is the centre of the Jewish
community, including prayer, study, education, socialization, and the arts.
HOLIDAYS & FESTIVALS
The first special day for every male Jew is his circumcision at eight days of age. At this ceremony
the child is named as well. At thirteen years the boy becomes "a son of the commandment" at his bar
mitzvah and becomes accountable to the law. At the service the boy leads the blessing and reads the
passage of Scripture in Hebrew. (Reform and some Conservative Jews celebrate bat mitzvah for girls.)
Weddings are a big deal in Judaism, because of the importance of family. Finally, the funeral shortly
after death includes reading from the Psalms to express hope and resurrection.
As a Jew progresses through these stages in life, he or she will celebrate a number of holy days.
The most common, and most important, is the Sabbath which begins every Friday evening and ends
Saturday at sunset. The Sabbath begins with a ritual meal that includes a candle for each member of the
household, special prayers and blessings, and a special loaf of braided bread. There are two services to
attend, one Friday night and one Saturday morning. For the rest of the Saturday the family rests from
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any work, including such things as lighting fires. At sunset on Saturday is the havdalah ceremony in
which a spice jar is passed around, a braided candle is lit, and prayers are offered for the coming of
Elijah.
Rosh Hashanah, the Jewish New Year, is celebrated in either September or October depending on
the alignment of the Jewish and secular calendars. Rosh Hashanah is a time of repentance and
reflection that starts the ten Days of Awe. The congregation gathers for a lengthy service at which the
blowing of the ram's horn, called the shofar, is central.
The tenth Day of Awe is Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. Originally on Yom Kippur the high
priest offered sin offerings of a bull, a goat, and the special scapegoat that, symbolically, carried people's
sins into the wilderness. Today it has become a day of personal repentance. Beyond the usual Sabbath
prohibitions, Jews on Yom Kippur must not eat, drink, wash, wear leather, and must abstain from sex.
There is a very lengthy, but well attended, service at the synagogue.
Five days after Yom Kippur is Sukkoth, the Feast of Booths. Originally all Jews lived for one week
in temporary shelters in remembrance of Israel's wandering the wilderness. Now, Jewish families eat
their meals in a structure with a frame of poles, at least three walls, and a roof made of leaves for the
week of Sukkoth.
Completing the cluster of early autumn holidays is Simchat Torah, a celebration of the gift of the
Torah at the time when its reading is completed in the synagogue. The Torah scrolls are carried around
the synagogue seven times, and men take turns kissing and dancing with them. Inebriation is
recommended.
In December comes Hanukkah which celebrates the purification of the temple at the hands of the
Maccabees in 166 B.C. Each day one candle on a 9 branched candelabra is lit in this time of
togetherness and fun. Likely because of timing, Hanukkah has come, in some families, to resemble
Christmas celebration.
Purim, celebrated in February or March, commemorates the occurrences told in the book of
Esther. The book tells how Queen Esther, a Jew, successfully interceded for the Jews who were
scheduled to be exterminated by the Persians. Purim, meaning lots, is based on the idea that the
scheduled extermination date was chosen by lottery. A celebration of Purim is a cultural event with
dancing and music, and a public reading of the book of Esther.
The Passover commemorates the fact that God protected his people from the last plague of Egypt.
It has three major components: unleavened bread, a Passover lamb (no longer sacrificed today), and a
retelling of the story. There also may be eating of bitter herbs, and formal sips of wine. The day before
the Passover all leaven is removed from the house. On the first day of the seven or eight days Passover
celebration a ritual-filled meal is eaten called the Seder.
Fifty days, or seven weeks after the Passover the Shavuot commemorates the gift of the Ten
Commandments on Mt. Sinai. It is also a harvest festival, celebrating the first harvest of the year.
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ISLAM
HISTORY
THE LIFE OF MUHAMMAD
Muhammad was born in the year A.D. 570 near Mecca, a city of pilgrimage which contained many
shrines, holy places, and idols of the indigenous polytheistic/animistic Arabian religion. Arabia was, at
that time, a centre for commerce and thus monotheistic Christians and Jews, as well as native
monotheists called the "pious ones" likely had some effect on the origin of Islam.
Muhammad was raised by an uncle, never taught to read or write, and worked as a camel driver.
Eventually he became an employee of a wealthy widow named Khadija, and the two fell in love and
were married. Muhammad became a wealthy merchant and his life might have been forgotten if it had
not been for the unique events of A.D. 610. In this year, while Muhammad was meditating outside of
Mecca he fell into a trance and received a vision from the angel Gabriel. He now began to prophesy that
there is one God to whom all must submit, and that the day is coming when all people will be judged as
to how well they obeyed God.
Khadija supported Muhammad from the beginning, but early on the religion grew very slowly.
However, after a decade or so Muhammad's followers numbered in the thousands. Since this group of
monotheists was bad for business in Mecca (which thrived on polytheistic pilgrims and the like) the
Muslims, "those who submit to God," began to be persecuted and in A.D. 622 fled to Yathrib. This flight
is called the hijra and has become year zero in the Muslim calendar. In Yathrib Muhammad was given
much responsibility in the local government. He made a pact with the Jewish community there, and
they lived peaceably together until the Jewish assassination attempt directed at Muhammad failed and
hundreds of Jews were executed.
Islam continued to grow, with many Arabian tribes putting themselves under the religious and
political leadership of Muhammad. Eventually they were strong enough to invade Mecca, where
Muhammad removed all idols and cleansed the city in a special ceremony. Mecca now became the
Islamic religious centre, and some existing holy places were taken up by Islam. When Muhammad died
in A.D. 632 much of the Arabian Peninsula was under the political and religious leadership of Islam.
THE SUCCESSIONS AND SPREAD OF ISLAM
At the beginning of every religious tradition comes a succession crisis after the charismatic
originator passes away. Islam is no exception to this. After Muhammad's death someone had to be
chosen to succeed him in leading the Muslims. The majority of Muslims set up Muhammad's father-inlaw Abu Bakr as the caliph, but a minority supported Muhammad's son-in-law Ali. From this situation
stems the division between the Sunnis, the majority, and the Shi'ite minority. Ali was passed over two
more times, as caliphs died or were assassinated due to increasing internal tensions.
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The third caliph, Uthman from the Umayyad tribe, was the first in the Umayyad Dynasty of caliphs.
After Uthman's death Ali finally became caliph, but was opposed by another Umayyad who claimed the
leadership. When, before a battle between the two caliphs, Ali offered to allow mediation his own
disgusted followers assassinated him.
The majority Sunni leadership stayed in the Umayyad Dynasty for the next century, centered in
Damascus. By this time the Islamic empire stretched from Persia to Spain. The Abbasids replaced the
Umayyads in A.D. 750, and moved the capital to Baghdad. They were in turn replaced by the Shi'ite
Fatimids from Egypt and by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century. The Sunni Mamelukes defeated the
Turks and held the leadership for about two centuries until the Mongols invaded. After the Mongols left
the Ottoman Turks took over and ruled until 1917.
During the time of the Umayyad Dynasty the Shi'ites underwent a certain amount of turmoil. Ali's
son Husayn succeeded him after his murder, and in the year 680 he battled the Umayyads, was
brilliantly defeated and Husayn himself was killed. The anniversary of his death is still a day of great
mourning for Shi'ites. The Shi'ites believe that a line of succession going back to Husayn continues today.
(Similar to the Catholic idea of apostolic succession.) Each successor receives a designation and
supernatural spiritual knowledge from his predecessor. The successors are called imams, and it is
believed that their interpretation of the Qur'an is infallible.
The Shi'ites, who began as a splinter group, continued to splinter. Three main Shi'ite groups are
the Imamite Twelvers, the Zaidite Fivers, and the Ismailite Seveners, distinguished by how many original
imams they think there were. The Twelvers, mostly found in Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon, recognize twelve
imams including Ali, Husayn, and Husayn's brother Hasan. The 12th, Muhammad-al-Muntazar,
disappeared at age 5 and will return as a sort of messiah known as Mahdi and unite the world under
Islamic rule. Until then, caretaker imams are in charge.
The Fivers are less numerous and can be found in Yemen. Their fifth imam, Zaid, is the one from
whom they trace their succession. Zaid is also believed to be living in hiding for the time being.
The Seveners have a different seventh imam, and are found mostly in India, Pakistan, and East
Africa. They believe that the seventh imam was Ismail, who was the incarnation of Allah (an idea that is
totally foreign to other Muslims). It is believed that Ismail is in hiding and will return as the messiah.
The Fatimid Dynasty were Seveners, and ruled in Egypt for 250 years but lost territory to Crusaders and
Seljuk Turks before being defeated by Sunni Mamelukes. The Hashishins were also Seveners.
BELIEFS
AUTHORITATIVE WRITINGS
The Qur'an is the highest authority for Muslims. It was revealed to Muhammad by the angel
Gabriel, and is an earthly copy of an ultimate, heavenly book. The Qur'an, divided into 114 suras which
are then divided into ayat, contains basic themes about God and judgment as well as detailed
instructions for Muslim communities and historical and (adapted) biblical references. The Qur'an is only
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authoritative in its original Arabic, as every translation requires human interpretation, and Muslims
everywhere are strongly encouraged to memorize it in Arabic (whether they speak it or not). Reciting
the Qur'an is an artform.
For issues not specifically dealt with in the Qur'an the life and sayings of Muhammad are the
authority. Called the hadiths, this information was collected early in the history of Islam. Since the
hadiths are close to the Qur'an in authority, when the Muslim is confused he should do as Muhammad
did. The hadiths also contain miracle stories.
The Qur'an and the hadiths are the only authorities, but they must be correctly interpreted to be
applied to life correctly. And so four different schools of shari'a, Islamic law, developed. The Hanifite
school is based on a loose interpretation of the Qur'an. The Malikites loosely combines the Qur'an and
the hadiths. The Shafi'ite school has formal criteria for adjudicating between Qur'an and hadith. Finally,
the Hanbalites try to base their application on a rigid interpretation of the Qur'an alone. It must be
remembered that these schools represent variations on ethics and practice, not so much in belief. The
Shi'ites may make a fifth school, with the imams as authorities.
There is also a school of mysticism in Islam, called Sufism, which attempts to find a spiritual reality
beyond laws and commitments. Sufis have been treated with suspicion by other Muslims because of
their radical beliefs about experiencing, or merging with Allah.
THE SIX CORE BELIEFS
The first of six core beliefs of Islam is the oneness of God. Founded on the monotheism of
Christianity, Judaism, and certain Arabian religions, Allah is a strictly unitary God. In this way we can say
that, theologically, the God of Islam is not the (trinitarian) God of Christianity. In fact, Mohammed
strongly opposed any notion of sexual activity attributed to God, including fatherhood. However, it
appears that Muhammad did not have knowledge of Orthodox doctrine of the Trinity, perhaps because
the Christians he had contact with would have been technically heretical on christological issues. Islam
emphasizes the transcendence of Allah rather than immanence, and identifying him with any earthly
thing is committing the very serious sin of idolatry.
A second core belief has to do with angels and spirits. There are many spiritual beings recognized
in Islam, including Gabriel and three other archangels, a myriad of lesser angels, and the devil at the
head of a great number of evil spirits called the jinn. These evil spirits are weak, but Muslims must be
on their guard as jinn can cause physical harm or tempt believers away from correct obedience to Allah.
This spirit world is the focus of the common Muslim and the folk religion variant of Islam which tends to
be animistic. Religious practice, such as following the five pillars, can come to be thought of as a way to
ward off evil spirits rather than submission to Allah.
A third core belief is in prophets through whom Allah reveals his will. Prophets are humans who
have succeeded in struggling against sin, and are considered apostles if they write a book to guide their
community. There is no definitive list of prophets, but of the 25 mentioned in the Qur'an most are
biblical figures and three of the others may have been borrowed from the Arabian monotheistic
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tradition. Jesus is an important prophet in Islam, and Muslims too believe in the virgin birth, his miracles,
and his ascension. However, other christological points such as Christ's divinity and sacrificial death on
the cross are rejected as being blasphemous and/or unthinkable. These points of biblical teaching are
seen as false inventions of the Christian church. Among Shi'ites it is believed that only the return of the
Mahdi will end the line of prophets, and a number of self-proclaimed prophets have led violent
movements in the past century or so. Among Sunni Muslims, although "Mahdi fever" sometimes has an
effect, the official view is that Muhammad was the last prophet.
Islamic apostles, like Moses, David, Zoroaster and Jesus, gave their communities holy books. Thus
Jews, Zoroastrians, and Christians are "people of the book," and have rights and protections that pagans
lack. Muhammad allowed for such people to practice their religions and live in safety, but his
commands on this are not always followed.
A fifth core belief of Islam, and one of its earliest emphases, is on judgment. On judgment day,
the timing of which is unknown, there will be a general resurrection and all people will be judged as to
their deeds in life. If the person showed, in actions, a submission to Allah's will, whether he or she is a
professing Muslim, Jew, or Christian, he or she will go to heaven. If not, he or she will end up in hell.
This reward/punishment is the focus of obedience to Allah. However, since Muslims cannot obey Allah
perfectly, not even the best Muslim can feel that he is guaranteed salvation. Instead, he must rely on
the mercy of Allah to forgive "occasional trespasses."
The sixth and final core belief has to do with the decree of God. Since Allah is absolutely
sovereign over all things all that he wills happens and what he does not will does not happen. This leads
to a certain amount of determinism which can cause apathy since humans can change nothing. Muslim
teachers have been unhappy with this determinism and have debated that God's sovereignty can leave
room for human freewill.
PRACTICES AND TRADITIONS
THE FIVE PILLARS
The first pillar of Islamic practice is confession, as follows: "There is no God but God (Allah), and
Muhammad is the apostle of God." The first part commits the Muslim to belief in the unitarian God, the
second part commits him or her to the teachings of Muhammad. All that is necessary to become a
Muslim is to repeat the confession and mean it.
A second pillar is prayer. A Muslim is to perform ritual prayers five times a day: at sunrise, noon,
midafternoon, sunset, and one hour after sunset. A sixth prayer may serve for special concerns. A
Muslim can pray anywhere, but men are encouraged to do so at the mosque. The muezzin calls the
people to prayer, now usually through a P.A. system. Before prayer ritual washing is necessary. Rinsing
of the hands, feet, eyes, ears, nose and mouth three times with water may be replaced with
representative gestures in the desert. After ablution, touching bodily excretions or a member of the
opposite sex brings defilement. Upon entering the prayer room of the mosque, which contains a niche
pointing to Mecca called the mihrab, the worshiper removes his shoes and washes his feet for practical
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and religious reasons. The prayer itself involves ritualistic posturing and recitation. During prayer, the
sexes are segregated in different rooms, for their dignity. Friday is a special prayer day which the entire
family attends, with shorter prayers and a brief sermon type message. Prayer, in industrialized
countries, may be adapted to suit the schedule of the gainfully employed.
Muhammad's first revelation from Gabriel came in the month of Ramadan, so to commemorate
this during Ramadan Muslims observe strict fasting, the third pillar of Islam. From dawn till sunset no
food or drink is allowed, and while the sun is down the idea is to eat and drink with moderation. Also
involved is a prohibition against sex and some forms of entertainment. Since the Muslim calendar is
lunar Ramadan may take place at any time during the solar year, and when it is in summer in the Middle
East it is extremely challenging to observe. Some Muslims, the young, elderly, ill, and soldiers in danger,
must only fast if and when possible. For those for whom it will always be impossible to fast during
Ramadan, a substitution such as a donation to the poor can be arranged.
The fourth pillar of Islam, as commanded in the Qur'an, is regular almsgiving. Although
Muhammad did not outline formal procedures for this charity, in shari'a it has become obligatory
(almost like a tax). The amount of this donation, called the zakat, is 2.5 percent of a person's net profit.
Although there are a number of holy cities and places, differing among the different Islamic
groups, none is as holy as Mecca. If he or she is able, every Muslim should make a pilgrimage to Mecca.
If not, a substitute pilgrim can make the trip. The pilgrimage to Mecca, called the hajj, has seven main
parts. The first is arrival and preparation. Upon arriving at Mecca, but before entering the city, Muslims
must enter a state of purity. This involves bathing, shaving the head, and special clothing. The second
component is tawaf, which involves walking around the ka'ba (a most holy mosque) 7 times in a spiral
pattern. The third part is running between Marwa and Safa to commemorate Hagar's frantic behavior
after being expelled by Abraham. The fourth component is the greater pilgrimage, in which all pilgrims
move out of the city of Mecca and, on the ninth day of the month of al-hajj come together on the Plain
of Arafat and meditate, pray, read the Qur'an, chant, etc. This is the high point of the pilgrimage. The
fifth part is a sacrifice of thankfulness and feast at the town of Mina. The sixth part is stoning the devil,
when the pilgrims throw nine stones each at three pillars representing the devil. The seventh and final
component of the hajj is a final tawaf: after the pilgrim returns to Mecca he or she walks around the
ka'ba one last time, completing the pilgrimage.
DIET AND DRESS
Muslims are only allowed to eat halal, permitted foods. Pork and pork products are to be avoided
at all costs. The Qur'an forbids the drinking of wine, and this is interpreted as forbidding all intoxicating
drinks.
In dress, the Qur'an commands modesty. No specific garments are required, but modesty is a
necessity. This has been interpreted and applied in different ways in different times and places. For
women, in public she should dress in such a way that she does not call attention to her physical beauty.
This is interpreted to mean she must cover her entire body, including arms and legs; her face may be
revealed but her hair and the sides of her head must be covered. Some Muslims also require the face to
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be hidden behind a veil, but this is not standard interpretation. For men, the skin above elbow and
knees must not be visible, and a head covering is usually worn but this is more a cultural obligation or
practice than a religious one. At home, restrictions on dress are much less stringent.
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NATIVE AMERICAN TRADITIONAL RELIGIONS
HISTORY
Alongside the challenge of getting past our biases, whether positive or negative, concerning the
religions of our First Nations neighbours, one of the major difficulties encountered when dealing with
Native American traditional religions is that of diversity. There are a great number of different tribal
groups, each of which will have different religious beliefs and practices. One of the most helpful ways of
breaking down this diversity is by means of geographic groupings rather than historical study, inasmuch
as tribes in major geographic areas tend to share many of the same religious assumptions.
GEOGRAPHIC BREAKDOWN
On the Northwest Coast region in Alaska and British Columbia are such tribes as the Tlingit and
Haida, which characteristically have economies based on nourishment from the sea, religions which are
shamanistic, and cultures which our matrilineal and totemistic. (These terms will be defined later.)
In the West we find hunter-gatherer tribes with interconnected cultures but each with
peculiarities (such as in diet) influenced by geography. In this region are such tribes as the Nez Perce,
the Shoshone, and the Mohave. Religions among these tribes are centered on nature spirits and lend
much importance to shamans.
In the Southwest, a region including such tribes as the Navajo and Apache, most tribes have
agricultural economies and permanent residences. Religions focused on agricultural fertility and rituals
for healing.
On the Great Plains such tribes as the Cheyenne and Comanche fed themselves by hunting buffalo.
However, other tribes in the region were agricultural. It is likely that with the coming of the horse a few
centuries ago tribes that formerly depended on the growing of crops turned to the abundant herds of
bison for sustenance. In this area religions focus on the sun and on Wakan Tanka, the "Great Spirit," and
include spirits and shamanism.
Tribes such as the Iroquois and Cree in the Eastern Woodlands depend on hunting and gathering
for nourishment, along with a bit of fishing and agriculture. Religiously, shamanism and belief in spirits
are combined with a relatively well-developed monotheism with the supreme God Manitou at the
centre.
Lastly, in the Southeast such tribes as the Natchez and Cherokee depended on growing corn to
feed their economy and religiously focused on shamanism and medicine men to control the spirit world
to that end.
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BELIEFS
A CREATOR GOD
Among Native American traditional religions three levels of spiritual beings are recognized by
different tribes which give different importance to different levels so that one might emphasize a
supreme god and virtually ignore ancestor spirits, for example. In this way room remains for vestiges of
original monotheism in the form of belief in a creator god. Anthropologically, the least developed tribes
seem to have the most developed monotheism religiously including belief in a Supreme Being who
created the universe. Such facts have not received much publicity likely because of the lasting
commitment to the evolutionary theory of religions which assumes traditional religions to be, at best,
animistic.
Among more culturally advanced tribes in the Great Plains and Eastern Woodlands is a
widespread belief in a universal spiritual power. This power is taken to be some sort of mana-like
impersonal, autonomous force. However this is not entirely accurate, as the force Native Americans
believe it is always wielded by personal spiritual beings. The stronger the force, the stronger the being
must be to control it, so the strongest force must be in the hands of a Supreme Being. This Supreme
Being is a vanishing trace of some sort of monotheism among Native Americans.
Among northeastern tribes, especially those that speak Algonquin, is a relatively articulate
understanding of the God Manitou, who is invisible, lives in the sky, created all things, and is somewhat
responsible for morality. Here too remains some influence from original monotheism.
In all these examples, however, the tendency for monotheism to be corrupted into such things as
polytheism and animism is more than evident. Although vestiges of a creator god in Native American
religions remains, they are usually fit into some sort of pantheon or brought down to earth and
identified with some part of creation.
SPIRITS
Among traditional religions two types of spirits are recognized: nature spirits and ancestor spirits.
Native American religions put much more emphasis on the former than the latter. Nature spirits
animate such objects as plants and animals, rocks, and geographic features such as bodies of water, and
when angered can be harmful. The Teton Sioux recognize many such nature spirits including the male
Sun and Sky along with Mother Earth on the highest level in a rough hierarchy, above the spirits of the
four winds, Moon, Buffalo, et cetera. The powerful Thunder Spirit, visualized as a huge bird, has a
special place among the nature spirits. Also recognized by the Teton Sioux are lesser spirits, good and
bad, and human spirits. Shamans are able to assist in guiding one through the spirit world.
As far as ancestor spirits go Native American beliefs are, for the most part, rather simple and
unimportant. Although burial may involve rituals acts of various kinds, most of these are to prevent
anything bad from happening to the living. For the most part, the departed are gone for good although
room is always left for their return. However, among the Creek is found a more elaborate view of the
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afterlife. The supreme Breath Holder reigns over all human spirits and looks after the realm of the
righteous dead (a sort of Paradise). Those who have died after a good life struggle their way across the
Milky Way until finally coming to the land of bliss and contentment. Elsewhere, the Natchez believed in
afterlife of punishment for the wicked and reward for the righteous.
Some Native Americans also recognize a third type of Spirit, namely the agricultural spirits. Since
growing certain crops was the cornerstone to the economies of the many agricultural tribes, these tribes
recognize spirits who look after the fertility of the fields. Good examples of this are the Hopi and Zuni
who worship the Kachina spirits in order to ensure the prosperity of their relatively arid fields. Kachinas
are thought to be the spirits of children who were lost in the mountains who return annually to the
villages and bring with them rain and fertility. Their return is celebrated with a feast including
entertainment provided by Kachina clowns.
PRACTICES AND TRADITIONS
SHAMANISM AND MEDICINE MEN
Shamanism must be distinguished from healing. Shamans are possessed by the spirits and thus
act only as the conduit through which the spirits work. Medicine men, on the other hand, actively
manipulate the spirits through the use of magic. Shamanism is more popular among Native Americans
than healing, and can take many forms and variations among different tribes. Becoming a shaman,
which, depending on the tribe, may be male or female, involves giving a vow in order to recover from
illness.
The Algonquin tribes have a special shamanistic custom called the shaking tent ceremony. The
shaman, after purifying himself in a sauna-like sweat lodge, enters a sacred tent and begins contacting
the spirits, some of which are "fearful" and powerful. At this time many odd noises emanate from the
tent until the entire structure begins to shake. After this point the shaman exits the tent and tells his
client what the spirits have revealed to him.
Among the Tlingit, shamans, recognized from birth, must never decorate or cut their hair or their
power will be lost. Other than the usual tasks of shamans, those among the Tlingit must discover and
expose witches. These witches, which tend to be enemies of the shaman or outsiders of the community,
are executed.
In some situations, for example in some healing rituals, shamans and medicine men work
together.
TOTEMISM
The practice of dividing society into distinct groups bearing the names of animals or plants, called
totemism, is common among Native American tribes and many different regions. An interesting
example of totemism is the Tlingit of Alaska, which is divided into two moieties, the Eagle and Crow,
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each of which contains a hierarchy of subdivisions called phratries bearing the name of lesser animals.
The subdivisions make up a sort of caste system mythologically based on the superiority of certain
animals: just as a beaver is better than a frog, those in the beaver phratry are higher than those in the
frog phratry.
Marriage among the exogamous Tlingit must take place between two people from differing
phratries, ideally opposing phratries at the same level in the hierarchy. The children of marriages belong
to the mother's phratry and the property and inheritance rights also belong to the wife's side of the
family, making the Tlingit a matrilineal tribe.
Although the totem animal of the Tlingit phratries and moieties is not taboo, their totemism does
serve to distribute food, goods and influence among the entire tribe. For example, ceremonial offices,
such as those involved in funerals, weddings and the like, are necessarily given to someone from a
different moiety. These offices come with a handsome salary which assists in distributing wealth among
the moieties. People of other moiety are also the only ones to partake of the feasts surrounding such
special events, thus distributing food to some extent. Most interestingly, the Tlingit occasionally throw
large feasts called potlatches which involve the host giving gifts and food to a large number of people
outside of his moiety.
The famous totem poles of North American Natives serve to record totemistic tradition. Four
types of totem poles should be distinguished: genealogical which record the ancestry of a certain
individual, historical which record the ancestry of a certain clan, legendary which tell some epic story,
and mortuary which are grave markers which show the totemic affiliation of the deceased. The
information recorded in totem poles is mythological rather than historical, and although totem poles are
not idols they are charged with religious meaning.
FETISHES AND RITUAL OBJECTS
Native American tribes recognize certain sacred objects, either because they are ritually
important or because they are fetishes which contain powerful spiritual energy. The fetishes may be
owned by individuals or communities.
An example of such a sacred object is the bundles found among Plains tribes. These bundles,
which contain such things as natural objects or weapons, are fetishes charged with spiritual energy and
may be personal or tribal. At times they act as links between the tribe and its ancestors in which case
proper care of the bundles protects against ghosts.
An example of a ritually sacred object is the calumet, the ceremonial pipe. When the calumet is
used, most commonly smoke is taken in and exhaled towards heaven, earth and the four winds.
Historically the tobacco use was a strong narcotic. The form and structure of the pipe itself was also
important.
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VISION QUESTS
Especially but not only among Plains tribes, visions are important. Receiving a vision is an
assurance of success in life, whether that be good health, economic welfare or, more commonly, a great
deed in battle.
Visions may come at varying times, from "tranquil moments" to times of stress. However, visions
are most often consciously and actively sought after. Someone seeking a vision undergoes exposure to
the elements, a period of starvation, and self-inflicted injury. Depending on the tribe, different genders
may receive visions and differing importance is given to the visions of each gender.
The actual content of visions varies greatly. Plains tribes natives might see a supernatural animal
of some sort, like a giant wolf, which enters the viewer's body. Or, a person or group of people may
relay a secret message. Although no specific stigma is associated with not receiving a vision, since
visions are predictors of prosperity those who receive none may become pessimistic.
SIGNIFICANT RITES OF PASSAGE
Native Americans celebrate the four rites of passage, with the most emphasis on puberty, with
much variety. Among the Shoshone before birth both mother and father restrict their diet and certain
activities, but among the Tlingit neither of the two have their place in the tribe altered in any way until
the time of birth. Children of both sexes are celebrated, but with children born out of wedlock, which
threaten the social order, as well as twins Native Americans practiced infanticide. The Tlingit neither
children a few days after birth, and in keeping with their informal belief in reincarnation children are
usually named after a recently deceased family member.
Initiations into puberty can be quick and painless, or quite rigorous. Tlingit boys are given a
potlatch when they reach the age of 10 and move into the home of one of their mother's brothers. This
is child's play compared to the initiation of Teton boys on the Plains. After purification, a boy must go
on his first vision quest, which involves exposure to the elements, fasting, and self-inflicted injuries. For
girls, puberty initiations can be slightly more involved than for boys. For example, among the Tlingit at
the correct age girls have their ears and lips pierced, and undergo certain restrictions such as limitations
in diet as well as being forbidden to touch any weapon-like objects. Among the Shoshone pubescent
girls are confined to a small hut for a number of days during which they may not talk or laugh, and are
frequently groomed and deloused. They may not eat meat or animal products, touch their bodies
except the special stick, or leave the hut except to do physical labour.
Among the Tlingit, marriage is exogamous, and the choice of marriage partners can be left up to
the bride and groom or their families. During this time it is of the utmost importance to remember all
proper channels and avoid all taboos. The marriage is sealed when the dowry is paid to the bride's
family. However, the dowry is returned if the bride's unfaithful. A Tlingit husband can divorce his wife
at any time. However, among the Zuni people the wife has the power to divorce her husband. The
Tlingit also practice levirate and sororite marriage. If one of the marriage partners passes away, a
member of the deceased's family must wed the surviving spouse.
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Among Native American tribes special societies which carry out important social and religious
functions are quite common. Among these, that of the Sundance is probably the most familiar. The
dancers, undergoing initiation overseen by shamans, perform a lengthy ritual that involves purification,
dancing, and prolonged gazing at a certain object like a pole or the sun. Self-inflicted injuries are most
often involved as well. This voluntary torture is likely what makes the Sundance so famous. Dancers
among the Oglala thread wooden pegs attached to leather straps under their skin, and as they dance the
straps are pulled until the pegs rip out of the dancer’s body.
Although Native Americans thanatologies are relatively simple, burial rituals can be surprisingly
complex. A deceased Shoshone is simply washed by a member of the same-sex and then burned.
However, among the Natchez things are a bit more involved. Distinction is made between noble "suns"
and commoner "stinkards". The latter is simply buried with his or her possessions. The former,
however, was escorted into death by relatives, slaves and volunteers, and the way to the burial ground
is marked with sacrificed infants. The Navajo are famous for being terrified of ghosts and, if at all
possible, leave funerals and burial to outsiders. The Tetons, on the other hand, have relatively no fear of
the dead.
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HINDUISM
HISTORY
THE VEDAS AND HINDU PREHISTORY
"Vedas", literally meaning "knowledge," usually refers to four ancient Aryan holy writings: the RigVeda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda. However the term is sometimes expanded
to include later writings and interpretation, and sometimes is used as an umbrella term to cover all the
sacred writings of Hinduism. The Vedas themselves are collections of religious knowledge traditionally
believed to have been revealed to and recorded by the rishis, a group of holy men.
The Rig-Veda, the earliest, contains over 1000 prayerful hymns for a variety of gods and thus
reveals a dynamic pantheon. The Yajur Veda is a collection of brief verses called mantras for recitation
by priests during sacrifices. The Sama Veda is a compilation of songs and chants for priests. Finally, the
Atharva Veda includes various magic spells and incantations and is usually identified with the folk
religion of the masses.
These religious writings reveal a connection between the early religion of India and that of Persia
before the time of Zoroaster, including good gods and bad gods, rituals involving the drink soma, et
cetera. There is likely a historical connection that has been lost, but probably relates to the movement
of Aryan tribes, specifically an Aryan invasion of the Indian subcontinent.
Still, because the Hindu religion is such an ancient one, its origins have been hidden by the
passage of time. Indeed, it is better to speak of origins and, perhaps, even of Hindu religions since the
term Hindu is an umbrella term simply categorizing the religions of the people surrounding the Indus
river. They do share a great number of similar assumptions and basic beliefs, but beyond the basics the
term Hindu covers a variety of differing religious traditions.
VEDIC DEITIES AND PROBABLE EARLY DEVELOPMENTS
There are many Vedic deities. Originally, the sky god was Dyaus Pitar, who at times was
connected with Mother Earth, but by the time of the Vedas the significance of these gods had lessened.
The later god of the sky is Varuna, but the Vedas also minimize his importance. Indra, the warlike king
of heaven, was likely the supreme god during the Vedic period as he was perfectly suited for a people in
the process of conquering a subcontinent. As time progressed the term Indra became the title given to
whichever supreme god. Mitra, a sun god, was identified with moral and ritual purity whereas Rita was
god of truth and right. Vishnu, a god of relatively little importance in the Vedas, later became known as
the preserver and was set among the top three gods. Rudra was a mountain god known for his
unpredictable and malevolent behavior who, in an attempt of pacification, was given the name Shiva
which means "auspicious one." He too became more important after the Vedic times as the destroyer.
The god or fire, Agni, was originally the god of sacrifice of later was promoted and personalized to
become a powerful spiritual being. Soma, god of the special drink after which he or she is named,
became identified with immortality and rapture. Brahmanaspati, the special word spoken at sacrifices,
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was so important that the word itself became a god, eventually the highest conception of God in
Hinduism.
It seems clear that a progression from monotheism to polytheism occurred. Originally the Aryans
worshiped the one god of the sky and did so by sacrificing animals. However, when the priests had
taken over all rituals by the Vedic period many gods are worshiped through fire sacrifices. As the
complexity of the pantheon and rituals grows, so does the power of the priests.
VEDANTA
With the advent of Vedanta as recorded in the Upanishads Hinduism changed from ritualism to
mysticism. Vedantic thought focuses on a single deeper spiritual reality, Brahman. Brahman is God, but
impersonal; he is infinite being and for this reason our finite minds cannot understand him. Opposing
Brahman, the world soul, is maya, "play" or "illusion." The everyday world of experience, including
physical objects, emotions and gods, is maya, which is not real in the way Brahman is. To accept maya
as the true reality is to live in ignorance, parallel to accepting a dream as real instead of waking life.
Within each person, besides the various layers of maya, is Atman, the "true self." And the
wonderful message of Vedantic Hinduism is that Atman and Brahman are identical. The key phrase tat
tvam asi, "that art thou", really means that within the human soul God resides. Realization of this is the
goal of Vedantic philosophy. To reach this goal requires a rigorous life of strict separation from the
world and deep contemplation. The hermitic Vedantic sages called sannyasin seek to attain moksha and
flee from samsara and maya by renouncing attachment to worldly things. If a sannyasin attains
realization of his true identity after death he is returned to Brahman. Because the life of a sannyasin is
strenuous, the way of knowledge is a minority movement in Hinduism.
BHAKTI
The way of devotion separated itself from the impossibly ritualistic way of works and the
impossible mysticism of the way of knowledge. Instead, Hindus in the Bhakti movement, Bhakti
meaning "loving attachment", seek salvation by devoting themselves to the worship of one God among
the many in the Hindu pantheon. Bhakti Hinduism can be traced back to the Bhagavad-Gita, a poem
which tells the story of the great warrior Arjuna who is about to battle some of his relatives and is
worried about how his actions will affect his karma. His chariot driver Krishna engages him in a lengthy
conversation and convinces Arjuna of two things: because he is part of the Kshatriya class Arjuna must
do his caste duty and fight the battle but he should not be concerned with the outcome of his actions
since the battle is maya; also, Krishna (who reveals himself to be the glorious God Vishnu) convinces
Arjuna that devotion to himself can, by itself, lead one to moksha.
This idea that attachment to one God is "sufficient for salvation" is the foundation of Bhakti
Hinduism, which, generally speaking, can be identified with modern Hinduism. However, even though a
Hindu may give ultimate allegiance to one specific God he or she will still recognize and worship many
others.
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Some of the many Bhakti deities include:
Gods and Goddesses
Description
Brahma

Sarasvati

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Vishnu

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

Lakshmi
Rama








Krishna


Buddha


Balarama


Kalki
Shiva
Ganesha








Representations of Brahma have four faces representing four heads
(the fifth was cut off by Shiva).
His image is common, but few Hindus worship him exclusively.
Images of the popular goddess Sarasvati tend to include the musical
instrument.
She is associated with learning and the arts and is responsible for
schools.
Followers of Vishnu, Vaishnavites, decorate their foreheads with
vertical lines that converge on the bridge of the nose.
His image bears four arms holding a conch shell, a lotus blossom, a
discus and a mace.
Vishnu rides a bird or reclines on a serpent.
Vishnu takes care of the dharma, which is the true ways of the gods,
and is incarnated whenever it is in danger. There are 10 incarnations
of Vishnu, called avatars.
Goddess of fortune and beauty who is popular among married
women.
Statues of her may have two or four arms.
She holds a lotus blossom and sometimes a conch shell.
When Vishnu is incarnated she is incarnated as his wife.
An incarnation of Vishnu, and a main God for the Vaishnavites.
Hero of the Ramayana epic.
Pictured holding a bowl along with his devoted wife Sita, his brother
Lakshman, and the monkey God Hanuman.
Ideas surrounding Rama, such as grace, are erroneously thought to be
influenced by Christianity.
This popular God Krishna is most often pictured as a young cowherd
who has lively relationships with the cow maidens.
His statues are colored dark blue or black and show him playing a
flute, usually with his wife Radha.
Was deified as a response to Buddhism.
According to Hindus he was a great teacher and an incarnation of
Vishnu but he deliberately taught falsehoods in order to reform
society.
Some believe this God to be the ninth incarnation of Vishnu rather
than the Buddha.
Rama's later brother, known as the white one and pictured with a light
complexion and snake teeth.
The tenth avatar.
A messianic figure who will appear at the end of the age to over a time
of righteousness.
His image has the head of a horse.
Most Bhakti Hindus recognize Shiva as the highest God.
Shiva is the destroyer who towards an end to evil.
He might be pictured as a dancer, or with the phallic lingam.
Ganesha is the oldest son of Shiva and has the head of an elephant.
He is the remover of obstacles.
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Durga
Kali
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Younger son of Shiva.
God of war who is pictured holding a large spear and riding a peacock.
God us who overcame a "buffalo-headed demon".
Her statues or images have 10 arms which hold weapons and show
her conquering the demon.
Depictions of the goddess Kali are fearsome: her tongue sticks out and
she sports a necklace of skulls and a belt of severed arms.
She destroys evil.
ISKCON, THE RAMAKRISHNA MOVEMENT, AND THE SAI BABA MOVEMENT
The Ramakrishna Mission is named after its originator, a priest of Kali who was dissatisfied with
his spiritual experiences." During meditation Ramakrishna became one with Kali as well as various other
Hindu gods and goddesses, Jesus, Allah and Brahman. This was taken as proof that he himself was an
avatar and that all religions led to the same goal. The ascetic Ramakrishna Mission was begun by one of
his disciples named Swami Vivekananda, who brought international attention to the movement when
he spoke for Hinduism at the World's Parliament of Religions. Although Vivekananda spoke out for
complete religious tolerance it became clear that he really meant that all religions should be made a
part of Vedanta. A Ramakrishna temple contains an altar on which stands pictures of Jesus,
Vivekananda, Ramakrishna, Ramakrishna's wife Sarada, and the Buddha. Christmas is an important
celebration in that it is both the birthday of Christ and the anniversary of the founding of the
Ramakrishna Mission. During the regular Sunday morning services the Om and Ramakrishna are
invoked and a Vedantic lecture is given. The Ramakrishna Mission has also set up schools and hospitals,
something no other Indian religion has done.
The Sai Baba movement is focused on a holy man who lived early in the 20th-century, Sai Baba of
Shirdi, and his present incarnation Satya Sai Baba. Although virtually unknown in North America and
Europe the Sai Baba movement has spread through Asia. Both Sai Baba's are famed for performing
miraculous acts, the original for being able to appear in two places at once and the new Sai Baba for
having the ability of healing and making objects appear out of thin air. Sai Baba wears a pink robe, and
his followers wear something pink when they worship him as a deity in their weekly meetings before his
picture. Sai Baba teaches a return to traditional Indian values.
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness, sometimes known as the Hare Krishna
movement, can be traced back to a teacher named Caitanya in the 1500's who taught that Krishna was
the highest and ultimate God. His teachings were brought to the United States by A. C. Bhaktivedanta
Prabhupada. ISKCON involves five main teachings: In the first place, Krishna is the supreme personal god
(which means ISKCON is monotheistic). Secondly, a devotee can attain salvation by chanting the Krishna
mantra, "Hare Krishna", 1000 times each day. Thirdly, the Bhagavad-Gita is an inspired work of God. In
the fourth place, members of the movement must be purely devoted to Krishna, which involves
abstaining from meat, caffeine, sweets and recreational sex. Finally, it is encouraged to distribute
evangelical literature. The ISKCON movement has gained much popularity, although numbers of
adherents in the United States are declining.
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BELIEFS
THE VALIDITY OF THE CASTE SYSTEM
The caste system has existed in some form at least since the time the Vedas and probably
originated in an attempt by light-skinned Aryan invaders to maintain their superiority over the darkskinned inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent. The word used for caste in Sanskrit really means
"color," but the Indian caste system has progressed into layers of religious complexity far beyond a
simple apartheid-like racial classification system.
The four castes are Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. Of these, the first three are
"twice born," identifiable by a special cord looped around the shoulder, and are thus able to take part in
all aspects of Hindu life and leadership. The inferior Shudras are subservient to the upper castes and
their privileges are restricted.
Hindu Brahmins are the priests who devote their life to study of the Vedas and performance of
religious rituals. However, Brahmins leave the regular temple rituals to lesser priests and devote
themselves to the fire ritual and such special services as rites of passage.
Kshatriyas, in the past, were the warriors. Over time, however, they came to be political rulers
rather than fighters. The struggle between the Kshatriyas and Brahmins for supremacy lasted centuries,
and that the latter won out is a testament to the importance of religion.
The Vaishyas are identified with the economic sphere, this caste being for merchants,
businessmen, and landowners.
Shudras are the laborers of the caste system who exists to support the twice born. They are also
mildly taboo for those of the upper castes. The Shudra caste itself is broken up into a hierarchy of
subcastes called jati, all of which must remain distinct.
Any upward mobility through or cross-breeding among the castes is strictly forbidden in the Code
of Manu. It is possible, however, to be expelled from the caste system and become an outcast(e), called
an "untouchable." Untouchables perform tasks that would defile anyone in the caste system such as
working with corpses. Outcasts are so taboo that even their shadows have the power to pollute.
Although, due to the influence of Mahatma Gandhi, the place of untouchables in Indian society has
improved, such an ingrained part of Hindu culture will not disappear quickly. Something must be done,
however, simply due to numbers: it is impossible for an outcast or the children of outcasts to enter the
caste system, but it is possible for a Hindu to be demoted and become an untouchable, so the number
of untouchables constantly increases.
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REINCARNATION AND KARMA
The idea of reincarnation, although not found in the Vedas, provides a foundation for Hindu ideas
and culture. Although Westerners who latch on to reincarnation in the New Age movement view it as a
positive thing, a source of hope for the future, to Hindus who identify life with suffering reincarnation is
a horrible thing which condemns people to life after life of sorrow.
The term for reincarnation is samsara, meaning "wanderings" or "existence." Is the never-ceasing
wheel of endless life and death on which all things have their place. After death every living thing
returns to life in a different form: a good Hindu might receive the rewards of being brought back as a
male Brahmin whereas a wicked Hindu might be punished by being reincarnated as a cockroach. The
specific form of reincarnation is governed by karma, "cause and effect." The idea is that actions in the
present affect future lives, so that by the law of karma good actions allow a Hindu to return in a higher
form of life whereas bad actions inevitably lead a Hindu to be demoted after death. It is important to
remember that the idea of karma is not fatalistic since everyone controls their own destinies, nor is
karma a divine judgment but rather a simple law of existence, nor is it necessarily negative as good and
bad karma can be accumulated.
Reincarnation provides a foundation of justification for the caste system. Those of high caste
deserve their superior position in Hindu society because they lived well in a previous life whereas those
of lower caste equally deserve their inferior position since they must have committed wrongdoings in a
past life. A parallel for the Western mind for the attitude towards substandard members of lower castes
might be our feelings toward prisoners: their lives are made difficult but no one wants to break them
out of prison because they deserve to be there.
The goal of all Hindus is moksha, release from samsara. Originally this required total obedience to
all of the ritual obligations in Hindu scriptures as well as submission to the Brahmins who held the key to
such release.
PRACTICES AND TRADITIONS
HINDU TEMPLE WORSHIP
The statues of gods that decorate a Hindu temple are not simply statues, for they are inhabited by
the gods they represent. The god will remain in his statue only if it is properly cared for, including being
washed, clothed, fed and worshiped. The statue of the one specific god or goddess the temple is
dedicated to is found in the rajagopuram, a special sanctuary. When the temple is open it can be a busy,
vibrant place with people chatting or fulfilling vows such as measuring the size of the temple in bodylengths.
There are three varieties of Hindu temple worship, called puja meaning "sacrifice": daily services,
regular individual worship, and celebrations. The first of these happens three times each day (morning,
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noon, and evening), and for the service the statues are washed and decorated and a special curtain
covers the rajagopuram. The service begins when the priest and his assistant enter the room where the
worshipers and musicians are already waiting. The intriguing music produced by the drum, Indian
trumpet and bell as well as the resonant syllable Om are to create a spiritual aura that purifies and
edifies the worshiper. After the priest enters the first statue to be worshiped is that of Ganesha, before
which the priest shakes a bell and waves incense. Ganesha is then anointed with flower paste before
the priest moves behind the curtain on the rajagopuram at which time the music stops. Suddenly the
curtain is opened to reveal the priest holding a candelabra and the music resumes as the worshipers
prostrate themselves before the god. The priest completes his worship of the main God and the other
gods in the temple before the services done in the music ceases. Afterwards the worshipers are marked
with ashes and flower paste.
Individual worshipers enter the temple in bare feet ringing a bell to warn spiritual beings. The
worshiper pays the priest a small amount of money and explains what he or she needs. The priest then
performs a small ritual in front of the appropriate deity which includes recitation of passages from the
Veda. The worshiper is anointed with flower paste and ashes, and is sometimes given a sip of holy
water and a footed silver bowl to wear on his or her head (called "walking in the footsteps of God").
The temple is also used for the many Hindu festivals including each god's day of descent in which
his or her statue is decorated, worshiped with a lengthier puja and transported around the temple or
through the village on a special cart.
RITES OF PASSAGE
Before birth, Hindus performs several ritual methods of protecting the mother and child from
negative spiritual influences, one of which is application of red flower paste to the mother's hair part to
ward off evil spirits. Pregnant women also make ritual attempts to ensure their child will be male. At
the time of birth a midwife is involved and sometimes a Brahmin priest who ensures no knotted cords
are in the house. A few days after birth to child is given public and secret names and a number of
months later other rituals are performed like the first bit of solid food and first haircut. Infants among
Tamil Hindus are dedicated to Periachi, the goddess of children, when they are one-month-old.
Periachi's fierce image is supposed to scare away harmful forces. The baby, after having his head shaved
and being covered in sandalwood powder, is laid in front of the goddess's statue and the worshipers
take a step backwards to acknowledge Periachi's protection.
For male children of the twice-born castes at about the age of 10 an initiation ceremony is
performed. The boy recites a passage from the Vedas to symbolize his commencement of Vedic study
and receives the symbolic cord looped around his left shoulder which designates him to be a member of
the upper-castes. Whereas before the boy was recognized as a Shudra, he can now take his place in his
proper caste and begin the first, student phase of life.
Traditionally, marriage is arranged between a bride and groom of the same caste. The ceremony,
most often officiated over by a Brahmin priest, takes place at the temple or at home. The bride and
groom, after having their clothes tied together, in seven steps walk thrice around the sacred fire. The
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groom applies a red dot to his wife's forehead that identifies her as a married woman. Marriage
commences the second phase of life, that of the householder during which people are occupied with
family, wealth, and honor.
When the third stage of life begins in advanced middle age Hindus are supposed to be tired of
existence in maya and ready to renounce attachment to the things of this world. Ideally, they should
withdraw from their families and villages and live lives of study, meditation, and worship in the forest.
Most often Hindus simply use the free time their age provides them with to increase their focus on
religious matters.
The last phase of life for a Hindu is complete renunciation in which all ties with family, society,
and the physical world are broken. The very few Hindus who reach this stage change their names and
live hermitic existences. Such a holy person will also renounce eating as a part of maya and thus speed
his way into Brahma.
Soon after a death, the corpse is bathed with water, and milk, honey and coconut milk, before
being brought by the family to the funeral pyre to be cremated. At this time the deceased's soul has
departed to the place from which it came, and is either returned to Brahman, reincarnated, or somehow
present as an ancestor. Historically, the practice of sati was approved of. A Hindu wife would voluntarily
be cremated alongside her dead husband in an act of intense devotion that reflected well and the dead
husband and increased both of their good karma. Although sati still rarely occurs, it has been outlawed
in India since the time of British rule. For the year after the funeral every month a memorial ritual is
performed, then annually thereafter.
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BUDDHISM
HISTORY
GAUTAMA BUDDHA
Born Prince Siddhartha Gautama to prophecies that he would become either a great king or a
great religious leader, the Buddha lived a very sheltered life in his youth. Since the king wanted his son
to follow in his footsteps, Siddhartha was kept away from such things as old age, sickness, and death,
and religious zeal that might lead him away from the political realm. However, during a chariot ride
through the surrounding country the gods showed Siddhartha an example of each of the four things his
father had hidden from him. Realizing that even his comfortable life would eventually lead to weakness
and death, Siddhartha renounced his privileged existence and became a highly ascetic wandering monk.
When, after seven years this path of self-mortification did not lead to enlightenment Siddhartha
Gautama took a meal then began a session of meditation that would lead either to death or
enlightenment. In a short time he was successful and became a Buddha, meaning an "awakened one."
The Buddha chose to spread his enlightenment to others by teaching them the path to truth. He had
many disciples when he died, peacefully among friends, after eating a gift of spoiled pork.
After the death of the Buddha, his teachings spread through Asia. In the modern day,
interestingly, Buddhism has mostly disappeared from India but is alive and well in East Asia, in countries
such as Tibet, Thailand, China, Japan etc.
BELIEFS & PRACTICES
The Buddha's cosmology is essentially nihilistic. He agrees with Hindus that the world of
experience is maya, and emphasizes that it is illusory. However, as opposed to the Hindu belief in
Brahma, the true reality, behind maya the Buddha sees nothing, the void, sunyata. This present life is
nothing but a false distraction from the true nothingness. Regarding the self, the Buddha confirms the
tat tvam asi of Hinduism. An individual can reach nirvana, be "blown out," when she realizes that she
isn't, she is true nothingness, anatman. Until this realization occurs people are stuck on the wheel of
Samsara and ruled by karma.
The Buddha's teachings are summarized in the "four noble truths":
i. To live is to suffer.- This truth is the foundation of all Indian thought, with variations in
explanations of why it is true and how to avoid it.
ii. Suffering is caused by desire.- At the root of all suffering is attachment to and grasping at
the grand illusion.
iii. One can eliminate suffering by eliminating desire.- Since desire is the root of suffering, if we
cease to desire illusory things that we cannot have our suffering will cease.
iv. Desire is eliminated by means of the noble eightfold path.- Desire can be eliminated only
by a strenuous effort involving the following eight aspects:
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1. Right view: proper understanding of the truths of existence
2. Right intention: a readiness to achieve enlightenment
3. Right speech: a commitment to speaking what is required and only what is required
4. Right action: a commitment to doing what is required and only what is required
5. Right profession: dedication to the life of a monk
6. Right effort: the proper direction of one's energy
7. Right mindfulness: meditating correctly
8. Right concentration: being continually focused
Being a Buddhist monk was thus a rigorous and strenuous full-time profession. Beyond the eightfold
path of prescriptions there are also the Ten Precepts, a list of proscriptions as follows:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
Monks are forbidden from taking a life and must practice ahimsa, "non-harming."
Monks may not steal.
They are not to be sexually immoral.
They may not lie.
Monks may not partake in intoxicating drinks.
They may not eat in excess, nor may they eat after the noon hour.
They are forbidden from taking in forms of entertainment such as drama, dancing, or
singing.
VIII. They may not decorate themselves with jewelry or cosmetics.
IX. Monks may never sleep in high or wide beds.
X. Nor may they touch gold or silver.
THERAVADA AND MAHAYANA
Theravada, from a phrase meaning "tradition of the elders," is Buddhism focused on dedicated
monks, called bikhus, with the layperson in a supporting role only. Only monks are able to attain
salvation, whereas the best hope of the common man is to support the monks financially and in this way
to store up good karma for the next incarnation. The duties of the common Theravada Buddhist are to
keep the first five of the Ten Precepts, and to provide food, clothing, and the other necessities of life for
the monks. Wealthy lay Buddhists may erect temples, and others can decorate it little bit by little bit.
Either as a child for some sort of puberty rite, or as an adult a lay Buddhist may become a priest for a
brief period of time in order to accumulate good karma.
Theravada doctrine concerning the Buddha himself tends to be a bit contradictory. Officially, he is
in nirvana and thus out of reach. Practically, however, he is treated as an exalted spiritual being,
worshiped, and appealed to for blessings. Siddhartha Gautama is believed to be one of 25 Buddha's,
which came to be seen as specially spiritual beings. A 26th Buddha named Maitreya, a bodhisattva or
"Buddha-in-the-making," is preparing for incarnation and when he comes he will bring with him an age
of universal enlightenment.
Mahayana, "greater raft" Buddhism, is so-called because it incorporates more people than simply
Buddhist monks. There are four main differences between Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism.
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The first of these is that the Mahayana Buddhists characterized sunyata as absolute compassion.
Mahayana Buddhists see salvation as finding their identity and the absolute compassion that motivates
their religion.
A second innovation concerns divine beings. Mahayana causes three types of divine beings: less
important Manushi Buddhas who were enlightenment while on earth and are thus unreachable in
nirvana (Gautama is an example), Dhyani Buddhas who reached enlightenment in heaven and are thus
accessible to human prayers and assistance, and Bodhisattvas of which there are many (as opposed to
the one in Theravada Buddhism). Bodhisattvas are those with supreme commitments to compassion,
who forego nirvana until every last soul has been enlightenment.
The third advance made by Mahayana Buddhism is its collection of sacred writings, especially the
Lotus Sutra. At the heart of this document is found such things as the idea that Gautama is a
manifestation of the true celestial Buddha, or that everyone can become a Buddha, a characterization of
Theravada Buddhism as selfish and uncaring, as well as references to specific Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
The last difference between Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism is that the latter set an example
of adaptation that eventually led to the founding of many different schools of Buddhism.
OTHER SIGNIFICANT BUDDHIST TRADITIONS AND SUB-SCHOOLS
Recitation of the phrase namu amida butsu, "I bow down to the Buddha Amida," out of
thankfulness for his assistance is quite important to Buddhists of the Jodo-shin-shu or Pure Land school.
The Dhyani Buddha Amida is believed to have been deeply affected by a human suffering he witnessed
while on earth and the poor chance most people had for reaching nirvana, and vowed to someday give
salvation to everyone. After becoming a Buddha Amida used his powers to create a "pure land"
Paradise in the Western region of heaven, and he is joined there by all those who trust in him. A
symptom, not a cause, of this trust is recitation of the nembutsu. Jodo-shin-shu has become the most
popular form of Buddhism in Japan, likely because no obligations are forced on Buddhists of this school
other than what they want to do out of gratitude to Amida. Even those unable or unwilling to take up
the strenuous lifestyle of other Buddhist schools can attain salvation through Jodo-shin-shu. There are
no monks in this school, but rather ordained clergy which oversee weekly or daily worship services
which involve chanting, meditation, and worship of Amida.
Zen
A brief story of the Buddha Gautama serves to give one a taste of Zen Buddhism: It is said that
one day the Buddha appeared before his followers holding a flower and did not say a word. While most
of his audience patiently waited for Gautama to speak, one disciple simply looked at the Buddha and
smiled. Gautama revealed that this one disciple had understood and thus reached enlightenment.
As this tale indicates, Zen Buddhism is geared towards immediate, spontaneous realization of
reality unhindered by words. Zen teachings are much like jokes in this respect, which impact the listener
only if the punchline is directly understood; if any explanation is required the joke loses all of its impact.
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D. T. Suzuki has characterized Zen with the following four points: it involves "a special transmission"
beyond sacred writings; there is no reliance on "words and letters"; Zen points directly to the soul; Zen
involves "seeing into one's nature and the attainment of Buddhahood."
Dualistic thought is a barrier to enlightenment. Such thought divides up reality into a number of
categories and treats each objectively. Zen seeks to get beyond such concepts and word games and to
simply accept what is real as reality. In this respect it dispenses with other Buddhist thought, with its
dualistic categories of maya and void. Once this simple understanding of reality as reality is attained,
satori, enlightenment, is reached.
There are traditionally four methods for reaching satori. The first is Zazen meditation in which
disciples sit, cross-legged with backs perfectly straight, perfectly still for long periods of time focusing
only on the thought provided by the master. The second method is the study of the lives and
conversations of historical Zen masters, called mondos, in order to learn from their examples. The third
Road to enlightenment is contemplation of Zen riddles called koans. These conundrums, like "How
crooked is straight?", cannot be answered with rationalistic analytical thought but rather with a
spontaneous internal realization. The fourth and final method Zen Buddhists use to reach satori are
cultural pursuits such as forms of art. Such things as martial arts, calligraphy, and rock gardens express a
unitary reality with perfected, unified details.
Tibetan Buddhism
Vajrayana Tibetan Buddhism finds its origin and three religious influences: the animistic Bön
religion of Tibet from which it gets some aspects of magic, Indian tantrism from which it gets its
emphasis on complementary opposites, and Mahayana Buddhism. Tibetan Buddhism focuses most
strongly on Dhyani Buddhas, regarding which they have a fairly detailed mythology. Each of these
Buddhas have female counterparts.
Philosophically, Tibetan Buddhism seeks to attain nirvana by removing all imperfections from
one's person. Since the human being is a microcosm of the entire spiritual universe self-control is
control of the universe and can move one toward salvation. This self-control is one of the aspects of
meditation for Tibetan Buddhists, for it allows one to master the passions through their use. A second
aspect is gradual merging with a deity. After concentrating on a Buddha or Bodhisattva the meditator is
purified until he realizes that all things, including the deities and spirits, are nothing but projections of
himself and are thus under his control.
Chanting powerful words, called mantras, assists in meditation. However, Tibetan Buddhists also
use written chants, such as on fluttering flags, moving waterwheels, or handheld prayer wheels, which
somehow automatically recite the words.
Tibetan mandalas, cosmic diagrams, are complex and have become tools by which one can
control the universe. Tibetan Buddhists also emphasize mudras, hand positions, which are highly
significant. There are also a number of distinctive Tibetan Buddhist writings, most famously the Tibetan
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Book of the Dead which consists of three sections, each of which encourage the deceased to realize that
all things are real projections of him- or herself.
Tibetan Buddhism is focused on monks called lamas, which are supported by the inferior common
people. There are a number of groups and subgroups of monks the most famous of which is the Yellow
Hats the leader of which is the Dalai Lama. The line of Dalai Lamas can be traced back 500 years, and
whenever a Dalai Lama dies a nationwide search is made to find a replacement who must share certain
physical characteristics and affinities. The replacement Dalai Lama must have been born 49 days after
the death of the previous one, and is believed to be the Dalai Lama reincarnate.
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JAINISM
HISTORY
MAHAVIRA
The early life of Nataputta Vardhamana, called Mahavira or "great man," is similar to that of
Gautama. He grew up in a noble household of the Kshatriya caste and eventually married and had a
daughter. However, when Mahavira was about 30 years old he became dissatisfied with his comfortable
lifestyle and turned to asceticism, leaving his household to seek enlightenment after his parents died.
During this time he exposed himself to the elements, likely without any clothes. He also sought to harm
no living thing, wearing a veil so as to avoid breathing in bugs, sweeping in front of himself as he walked
so nothing would be trod upon, eating only vegetables from the garbage. After 13 years of this
Mahavira found enlightenment, a state of omniscience called kaivalya. At this time he had gained in
understanding of the universe and had become liberated.
BELIEFS
Mahavira taught a cosmology that includes many distinct souls. All of the many individual souls
are called jiva meaning "life" or "soul," and included in this category are plants, animals, humans, and
gods. Inanimate objects such as dirt and rocks are considered ajiva, "nonlife." Jiva souls have the
tendency to rise upwards to the very top of the (human-shaped) universe where they find blissful
nirvana. However, Jainism includes a mostly unexplained doctrine of original sin whereby souls have
been dirtied with ajiva or karma matter. Jains accumulate karma matter in the same way Hindus
accumulate bad karma, by committing certain negative actions, the most potent of which is killing a
living being. This weighty karma matter must be purged by a life of minimal action, for the more karma
matter accumulated on the person at death the lower his next incarnation will be.
PRACTICES AND TRADITIONS
THE VOWS OF A JAIN MONK
Jain monks make many vows, but five are especially important. The first, ahimsa, has become a
trademark of Jainism. Jains must do everything possible to avoid hurting another living thing, whether
that be a person, an animal, or a plant, in order to avoid accumulating karma matter.
The second vow, truth telling, means not to lie but also not to mislead anyone by speech. This has
led to a peculiar habit among Jains to include the word syadvada, maybe, in all assertions of fact since it
is not always easy to know exactly what is true.
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The third promise of Jain monks is to refrain from stealing anything, but it is extended beyond this
simple meaning. It basically comes down to prohibiting them from owning property as monks are
allowed only to accept gifts and then only if the gift is a necessity.
The fourth vow a Jain monk makes is to conquer his sexual desire, but in application it means he
must conquer all desires of the flesh including such things as gluttony.
The fifth vow is a prohibition of attachment to anything from family, to physical objects including
a monk’s body, to identity or a name, anything that might distract one from the path to enlightenment.
LAY JAINISM
Jainism is a monastic religion, as only the Jain monks are capable of attaining enlightenment.
However, there is a place for the common man in Jainism by allowing them to escape out from under
the Brahmins and caste system and to purge themselves of karma matter in order to eventually become
incarnated as a monk.
The common Jain must take a total of 12 vows, the first five of which (not to needlessly take life,
to avoid lying, to respect property by not stealing, to avoid any marital infidelity and, lastly, to refrain
from greed) are softer versions of the vows monks take. Beyond these they must limit their travels as
well as the number of things used daily, guard against avoidable evils, meditate at specific times and
maintain certain special periods of self-denial, spend a few days as a monk and, finally, support the
monks financially by giving alms.
Early on Jainism incorporated Hindu deities to give assistance to the lay people, even though gods
are not the focus of Jainism and cannot truly help anyone along the path to enlightenment.
TIRTHANKARAS AND TEMPLE WORSHIP
The Tirthankaras, "ford finders", are similar to Bodhisattvas in Buddhism. The twenty-four
Tirthankaras were all humans who attained enlightenment and became divinities, not gods, with certain
powers that can be used for the advancement of Jainism. Mahavira was the latest Tirthankara, and
other than his predecessor the rest are mythological figures. These twenty-four Tirthankaras have come
in a time of historical descent. Jains view history as a cycle of progressively worsening times followed by
ages of progress and advancement. We are nearing the end of the down swing and the twenty-four
Tirthankaras who will lead mankind in the next golden age are presently purifying themselves from
karma matter.
Jain temples are usually white in color and contain a collection of statues of the Tirthankaras
(which are virtually indistinguishable from each other). They may also contain aksata puja, like kernels
of rice, which are used by worshipers to make a design which includes swastikas (the energy of the
universe), three dots (3 paths to enlightenment), a crescent (liberation), topped off with a dot (nirvana).
At the front of the main room of the temple is a place for reciting prayer, which can involve objects such
as a mirror or a duster which symbolize purity. The Jain worshiper’s main act is the decoration of the
statues of the Tirthankaras.
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SIKHISM
HISTORY & BELIEFS
NANAK AND THE GURUS
Nanak, the founder of Sikhism was the son of a Hindu father and Muslim mother, was raised a
Hindu. He eventually came to believe that God transcends established religious distinctions and at age
30 received a call from God that he was a guru, an infallible religious leader. Wearing a mix of Hindu
and Muslim clothes and proclaiming "There is no Muslim, and there is no Hindu!" Nanak traveled in
northern India preaching, teaching and performing miracles. He was in parts pious and iconoclastic.
Nanak taught that there is one God who is known by many different names (referred to by modern Sikhs
most often as Ekankar). This God is not the personal God of Islam, nor the Hindu pantheon. He believed
in the Hindu ideas of karma and reincarnation by which lives progress through Maya, in this case a real
but mundane existence, to salvation through devotion to God. This devotion, a mystical thing involving
chanting words and hymns, leads to one's unity with God.
Nanak's chosen successor, Angad, wrote hymns and collected them along with others written by
Nanak. Angad was followed by Amar Das who organized the Sikhs into subdivisions, collected a tax from
the community, and began to practice of pilgrimages. The next guru, Ram Das, founded the town that
would eventually be named Amritsar, "pool of nectar (of immortality)," and began to the digging of a
well there. Ram Das had a good relationship with Emperor Akbar and on a visit the two ate in a
common kitchen, from which point Sikhism emphasized communal meals. Arjan, Ram Das' successor,
finished building Amritsar, wrote hymns and added them to a collection of previously written hymns to
create this Sikh Scriptures called the Adi Granth, before he was martyred by Akbar's son for blasphemy.
Har Gobind, Arjan's son and successor, followed the advice of his father and added a fair bit of
militarism to Sikhism. He wore a sword, took to his throne with two of them symbolizing spiritual and
political power, and, although he was no great general, managed to defend the Sikhs against increasing
animosity. The next two gurus, Har Rai and Harkrishnan, were not innovators but instead brought the
Sikhs together and solidified their community both religiously and politically. Tegh Bahadur resisted his
emperor's command to convert to Islam and was martyred. Gobind Rai, the 10th guru, was tired of
constant persecution and turned Sikhism into a completely militaristic movement. He founded a
military order of singhs, "lions," called the Khalsa.
Gobind Rai declared that he would have no human successor, but instead after his death the Adi
Granth would serve as guru. For this reason, it can also be referred to as the Guru Granth Sahib. In
modern Sikhism the scriptures are treated with the utmost of respect, in much the same way as a
human guru must be treated.
PRACTICES AND TRADITIONS
TEMPLE WORSHIP
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Those who become Sikhs must be baptized by drinking some holy water received in the name of
the gurus. Beyond this ritual Sikhism emphasizes devotion to God, which involves worshiping at a Sikh
temple. The temples most resemble mosques, empty rooms with carpeted floors, decorated with
flowers and holding an offering box, at the front of which is found a copy of the Adi Granth. This book,
seen as an embodiment of God's light, is treated with great respect and much honor. It is put away in a
special room or compartment called a bed every night and brought out every morning with a chanting
service. Along with sexually-segregated services twice a week, Sikh temples are most often open for
individual worship. Upon entering a Sikh temple one must cover one's head and wash one's hands and
feet but no other restrictions apply (other than actions that show disrespect to the Adi Granth). The
worship itself involves the chanting of scriptural hymns with accompaniment. Services are somewhat
casual and rather enjoyable for all involved. Upon entering or leaving the temple Sikhs approach the Adi
Granth, bow momentarily, place their alms in the offering box and take a few steps backwards.
Someone of standing in the community, not necessarily a priest, is placed behind the Adi Granth
during chanting and waves a decorative horsetail over the covered Scriptures in a ritual that likely began
with a desire to protect the book from flies. After the service is completed everyone is given a small
lump of sugar, the partaking of which is an act which expresses solidarity with the Sikh community.
The service of chanting is followed by a communal meal in the langar, a communal kitchen. This
meal, in which an emperor might find himself sitting next to an outcast woman, a Hindu beside a Muslim,
is a celebration of universal equality.
THE SINGHS AND THE 5 KS
As a response to persecution, although initially pacifist Sikhs developed a military wing called the
Singhs or "Lions." The symbols of membership of the Singhs have become identifying marks of modern
Sikhs. They are the Five Ks:
1. Kesh (uncut hair)- Sikhs are never to cut their hair, which they see as a gift from God. In order
to keep their hair clean it must always be covered, and so Sikhs wear turbans or headscarves.
2. Kanga (a wooden comb)- This is a single of cleanliness and healthiness of mind and body, and
assists in keeping Kesh.
3. Kara (a steel bracelet)- This must be worn as a reminder of an unbreakable bond with the divine.
4. Kachhera (cotton underwear)- Worn as a symbol of self-control and modesty.
5. Kirpan (a small symbolic sword)- Shows that every Sikh is a soldier in God's army, and provides a
symbol of the importance of protecting the weak and self-defense.
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