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Shanghai European Model United Nations 2017 | Research Reports
Forum:
General Assembly
Issue:
Regulating the political and environmental impact of human
exploration at the earth’s poles
Student Officer: Justine LI
Position:
Deputy President
Introduction
Human exploration at the earth’s poles concerns the Arctic (North Pole) and the Antarctic (South
Pole). While the first crossing of the Antarctic Circle was realised by James Cook on January 17th 1773,
the first crossing of the Arctic region dates to the prehistoric period. Starting from the early 20th Century,
human exploration of both poles has gradually become due to scientific research or resources-oriented.
Protected by the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), Antarctica is “exclusively for peaceful purposes.” To
that extent, exploration and exploitation of resources is prohibited and territorial claims are held in
abeyance. Human impact on Antarctica- politically and environmentally- is therefore well regulated and
limited.
As for the Arctic, it is vulnerable to countries and companies’ grab. Five Arctic States have laid
claims in accordance with their economic exclusive zone (EEZ). In addition, major oil and gas companies
covet the vast natural resources present in the area. Political conflict and disputes therefore arise
concerning licenses for oil and gas drilling. If not supervised properly, the environmental impact of
human exploration and exploitation of these resources will damage the North Pole’s fragile ecosystem
beyond repair.
Definition of Key Terms
Economic Exclusive Zone (EEZ)
Prescribed by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea III (UNCLOS III), an EEZ is a
sea zone stretching out to 200 nautical miles (370 km) from a state’s coast. The EEZ gives full
sovereignty to the state over the area.
Northwest Passage
The Northwest Passage is a sea route connecting the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean through
the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Until the past few years, this route was impossible due to the
presence of thick sea ice all year round. Liberation of this new passage reduces sailing time and
distance by 4000 kilometers, thus allowing companies to save money in fuel.
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Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)
Composed of a number of agreements, the Antarctic Treaty System was created to regulate
international relations concerning the Antarctic. The treaty defines Antarctica as the land, islands
and ice shelves south of 60 degrees South Latitude. Now signed by 53 parties, the ATS promotes
scientific research and exchange of data while prohibiting military activity and mining. Finally, any
territorial claim is held in abeyance.
Background Information
Places concerned
Antarctica (South Pole)
Protected by the ATS, the political and environmental
impact on Antarctica has been relatively controlled.
As of October 2006, 30 countries operate 68 yearround research stations for peaceful scientific
purposes. Nonetheless, seven countries have
claimed parts of Antarctica and the military ban is
often breached.
Territorial claims of Antarctica
Arctic (North Pole)
Unprotected by international treaties, the Arctic is
vulnerable to countries’ claims and companies’
attention. Five Arctic States have already laid their
claims on ice shelves and islands, following the
guidelines on the EEZ. Attention towards the North Pole
is focused on its natural resources, the EEZ and the
Northwest Passage.
Natural resources
Territorial claims of the Arctic
Both Polar Regions are believed to hold large amounts of natural resources- oil, gas, gold and other
minerals. However, conditions found in both areas are extreme. This makes mining, drilling and other
forms of exploitation extremely difficult, dangerous and expensive, thus raising the question of costeffectiveness. Finally, the Antarctic is protected by the ATS, which bans exploration and exploitation of
resources.
Oil and gas
Large amounts of oil and natural gas believed to be held are perceived to be the cause of
territorial claims and disputes. Geologists believe the North Pole houses around 13% of the
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world’s undiscovered petroleum reserves and 30% of undiscovered natural gas reserves.
However, the price of a barrel extracted in the Arctic is estimated at around 100 US$ against the
global price of around 53 US$.
Minerals
Another highly valuable natural resource, the two Polar Regions are rich with minerals such as
gold, diamonds, uranium, nickel, copper… Arctic resources remain largely untouched due to
cost-effectiveness mentioned above.
Environmental Impact
Environmental degradation
With sea ice melting, the liberation and use of the Northwest Passage could accelerate the
deterioration of the Arctic’s environment and ecosystem. Tourism and maritime routes increase
the risk of oil spills as well as the amount of pollutants discharged by ships. As for Antarctica,
invasive species taken on ships attack the local fauna. Research stations were not careful of their
impact on the environment. As a result, soils have been contaminated, untreated sewage and
rubbish dumped into the sea.
Resource exploitation
The exploitation of natural resources has severely damaged the ecosystem. Some species are
on verge of extinction for economic benefit while others have been disturbed. While the
exploration and exploitation of oil, gas and minerals is currently banned and/or not profitable, the
threat increases with technological development and as the need becomes more important.
Major Countries and Organizations Involved
Arctic: Russian Federation, United States of America, Canada, Norway, Denmark
These five Arctic countries all claim parts of the North Pole, involved in a race to obtain licenses
for oil and gas under the UN Law of the Sea Treaty. Russia has been most aggressive to assert its
sovereignty over the area. In 2007, veteran Arctic explorer Artur Chilingarov planted the Russian flag on
the bottom of the Arctic seabed, causing widespread protest. A military buildup from Moscow has also
been observed in the outlying archipelagos of the Arctic. As for Canada and the United States, further oil
and gas drilling licenses have recently been banned by both administrations.
Antarctic: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, United Kingdom
Seven countries have laid claims to Antarctic territories. Countries tend to put their scientific
observation stations within the claimed territories. However, these claims are not addressed by the ATS.
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Arctic Council
The Arctic Council is composed of eight Arctic nations- USA, Canada, Iceland, Norway, Sweden,
Finland, Russia and Denmark- and representatives of six indigenous populations. Operating on
consensus basis, it promotes cooperation and interaction between Arctic States, indigenous
communities and other inhabitants on topics of sustainable development and environmental protection.
Under the Ottawa Declaration, the Arctic Council does not address military security nor boundary or
resource disputes.
Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM)
Meeting annually since 1994, the ATCM is hosted by Consultative Parties and also holds
representatives of non-Consultative Parties, independent observers and invited experts. While all
participants may contribute to discussions, only the Consultative Parties can take decisions. Adopted
Measures, Decisions and Resolutions give effect to the principles of the ATS.
Timeline of Events
Date
Description of event
1903
First Antarctic Base: “Omond House” a meteorological laboratory
December 1st, 1959
Signature of the ATS
June 23rd, 1961
The ATS enters into force
July 10-24, 1961
First Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting
1968
First Arctic oil production
September 19th, 1996
Arctic Council is established
August 1st, 2007
Chilingarov plants the Russian flag on the Arctic seabed
May 27-29, 2008
Arctic Ocean Conference
th
December 20 , 2017
Outgoing US President Barack Obama bans new Arctic oil and gas drilling
Relevant UN/Official Treaties and Events

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 10 December 1982 (UNCLOS III)

Antarctic Treaty, December 1st 1959

Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities, 2 June 1988 (not in force)

Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, 4 October 1991
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Previous Attempts to solve the Issue
The ATS is a remarkable attempt to address the issue in terms of international cooperation. It has
secured natural resources, thus helping preserve the fragile ecosystem and environment. However, the
ATS lacks an official body or organization to ensure that the treaty is respected. The military ban is not
respected as Chile and Argentina maintain permanent military presence. Besides that, the use of civilian
contractors for military mission has been worrying. Finally, the ban on mining will be under review in
2048, which increases the uncertainty on the human impact.
Restrained by the Ottawa Declaration, the Arctic Council cannot address the problem of political
impact. However, its efforts in regulating the environmental impact have been considerable in improving
the cooperation between Arctic States.
Possible Solutions
As proposed by Russian President Vladimir Putin and Danish Foreign Minister Per Stig Moeller,
discussion and diplomacy should be favoured in order to resolve the problem. Concerning Antarctica,
ratification of the ATS by all countries would be a big step towards regulating the human impact on the
South Pole. Strengthening the treaty would also be a strong solution as the implementation of the Treaty
cannot currently be ensured. As for the Arctic, discussion between members of the Arctic Council is
essential to settle any dispute on borders between two countries. Granting the same status than the
Antarctic under the ATS to the area beyond the EEZ will subsequently protect the environment of the
North Pole. Furthermore, it will avoid a “Scramble for the Arctic” between major companies and countries
for its natural resources as the ice melts.
Bibliography
What is the Northwest Passage? A Map and a History.
http://geology.com/articles/northwest-passage.shtml
United Nations
http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part5.htm
Sciencing Natural Resources in Northern Polar Regions
http://sciencing.com/natural-resources-northern-polar-regions-22884.html
The treat to Antarctica from mining and exploiting oil and gas
http://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/science/threats_mining_oil.php
Drilling in the Artic- What is the environmental impact?
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/oct/02/drilling-arctic-environmental-impactgreenpeace-piracy
The Guardian- Arctic powers gather for Alaska talks as pace of global warming threatens ice cap
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https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/17/arctic-alaska-global-warming-threatens-ice-cap
The Guardian
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2015/jun/16/drilling-oil-gas-arctic-alaska
The Guardian- Vladimir Putin calls for Arctic claims to be resolved under UN law
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/23/putin-arctic-claims-international-law
BBC News Why do so many nations want a piece of Antarctica?
http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-27910375
New York Times- Leaving the Arctic Alone
https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/21/opinion/leaving-the-arcticalone.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FOffshore%20Drilling%20and%20Exploration&action=click&
contentCollection=timestopics&region=stream&module=stream_unit&version=latest&contentPlacement=
2&pgtype=collection&_r=0
The Guardian- Barack Obama bans oil and gas drilling in most of Arctic and Atlantic oceans
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/dec/20/barack-obama-bans-oil-gas-drilling-arcticatlantic
Discovering Antarctica
http://discoveringantarctica.org.uk/challenges/sustainability/mineral-resources/
Antarctic Treaty System
http://www.scar.org/antarctic-treaty-system
ATS- The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM)
http://www.ats.aq/e/ats_meetings_atcm.htm
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