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Christianity
Christian history begins with Jesus of
Nazareth, a Jew who was born in a small
corner of the Roman Empire. Little is
known of his early life, but around the age
of 30, Jesus was baptized by John the
Baptist and had a vision in which he
received the blessing of God. After this
event, he began a ministry of teaching,
healing, and miracle-working. He spoke of
the "kingdom of God," condemned
religious hypocrites and interpreted the
Mosaic law in new ways. He spoke before
crowds of people, but also chose 12
disciples whom he taught privately. They
eagerly followed him, believing him to be
the long-awaited Messiah who would
usher in the kingdom of God on earth.
After just a few years, however,
opposition mounted against Jesus, and he
was ultimately executed by crucifixion by
the Romans. Most of Jesus' followers
scattered, dismayed at such an
unexpected outcome. But three days later,
women who went to anoint his body
reported that the tomb was empty and an
angel told them Jesus had risen from the
dead. The disciples were initially
skeptical, but later came to believe. They
reported that Jesus appeared to them on
several occasions and then ascended into
heaven before their eyes.
The remainder of the first century AD saw
the number of Jesus' followers, who were
soon called "Christians," grow rapidly.
Instrumental in the spread of Christianity
was a man named Paul, a zealous Jew who
had persecuted Christians, then
converted to the faith after experiencing a
vision of the risen Jesus. Taking
advantage of the extensive system of
Roman roads and the time of peace, Paul
went on numerous missionary journeys
throughout the Roman Empire. He started
churches, then wrote letters back to them
to offer further counsel and
encouragement. Many of these letters
would become part of the Christian
scriptures, the "New Testament."
In the second and third centuries AD,
Christians struggled with persecution
from outside the church and doctrinal
debates from within the church. Christian
leaders, who are now called the "church
fathers," wrote defenses of the false
claims made against Christians
(apologetics) as well as arguments
against false teachings spreading within
the church (polemics). Doctrines were
explored, developed, and solidified, the
canon of the New Testament was formed,
and the notion of "apostolic succession"
established a system of authority to guard
against wrong interpretations of Christian
teachings.
A major turning point in Christian history
came in the early 4th century AD, when
the Roman emperor Constantine
converted to Christianity. The Christian
religion became legal, persecution ceased,
and thousands of pagans now found it
convenient to convert to the emperor's
faith. Allied with the Roman Empire,
Christianity gradually rose in power and
hierarchy until it became the
"Christendom" that would encompass the
entire western world in the Middle Ages
and Renaissance.
Emperor Constantine hoped Christianity
would be the uniting force of his empire,
so he was distressed to hear of a dispute
over Arianism, which held that Christ was
more than a man but less than God
himself. In 325 AD, Constantine called the
Council of Nicea so that the bishops could
work out their differences. They
condemned Arius and Arianism and
declared the Son (Christ) to be of "one
substance" with the Father. After the
council, St. Athanasius of Alexandria
continued to battle the Arians, but the
orthodox view eventually won out for
good. The church then turned to issues
about Christ's divine and human natures,
which were essentially resolved at the
Council of Chalcedon (451 AD).
In the meantime, the considerable
religious, cultural, and political
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differences between the Eastern and
Western churches were becoming
increasingly apparent. Religiously, the
two parts of Christendom had different
views on topics such as the use of icons,
the nature of the Holy Spirit, and the date
on which Easter should be celebrated.
Culturally, the Greek East has always
tended to be more philosophical and
abstract in its thinking, while the Latin
West tended toward a more pragmatic
and legal-minded approach.
As the old saying goes: "the Greeks built
metaphysical systems; the Romans built
roads." The political aspects of the split
began with the Emperor Constantine, who
moved the capital of the Roman Empire
from Rome to Constantinople (in modern
Turkey). Upon his death, the empire was
divided between his two sons, one of
whom ruled the western half of the
empire from Rome while the other ruled
the eastern region from Constantinople.
These various factors finally came to a
head in 1054 AD, when Pope Leo IX
excommunicated the patriarch of
Constantinople, the leader of the Eastern
church. The Patriarch condemned the
Pope in return, and the Christian church
has been officially divided into West
("Roman Catholic") and East ("Greek
Orthodox") ever since.
In the 1400s, some western Christians
began to publicly challenge aspects of the
church. They spoke against the abuse of
authority and corruption in Christian
leadership. They called for a return to the
gospel and a stripping off of traditions
and customs like purgatory, the cult of the
saints and relics, and the withholding of
the communion wine from non-clergy.
They began to translate the Bible - then
available only in Latin - into the common
languages of the people.
However, these early reformers did not
have widespread success, and most were
executed for their teachings. Legend has it
that when Jan Hus, a Czech reformer
whose surname means "goose," was
burned at the stake in 1415, he called out:
"Today you roast a goose, but in 100
years, a swan will sing!"
In 1517, a German monk named Martin
Luther (who bore little resemblence to a
swan) posted 97 complaints against the
practice of selling indulgences on a
church door. He had experienced a
personal conversion to the doctrine of
justification by faith alone, and also
shared many of the ideas of those early
reformers. Growing German nationalism
and the invention of the printing press
ensured that Luther would have greater
protection than his predecessors and his
teachings would be spread quickly.
He was excommunicated and barely
escaped with his life on more than one
occasion, but Luther lived out his life
spreading the Reformation, and died a
natural death. His ideas had already
spread throughout Germany, and similar
reforming movements sprung up in
England and Switzerland. Soon much of
Europe was embroiled in a civil war, with
Protestant nationalists fighting Catholic
imperialists for religious and political
freedom.
In the 17th century, Christians of many
ideologies embarked on the hazardous
journey across the Atlantic, to the
promise of religious freedom and
economic prosperity in the New World.
Quakers came to Pennsylvania, Catholics
to Maryland, and Dutch Reformed to New
York. Later came Swedish Lutherans and
French Huguenots, English Baptists and
Scottish Presbyterians. With the
exception of some Puritan communities,
there was no attempt to impose religious
uniformity in America.
The period from about 1648 to 1800 was
an age in which reason (as opposed to
revelation and dogma) became
increasingly important, but so did
religious revival. Benjamin Franklin
exemplified his time's general attitude
towards religious matters when he
remarked, a few weeks before his death:
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As to Jesus of Nazareth...I have...some
doubts as to his Divinity, tho' it is a
question I do not dogmatize upon, having
never studied it.... I see no harm, however,
it its being believed, if that belief has the
good consequence...of making his
doctrines more respected and better
observed.
At the same time that religious skepticism
and toleration were growing in the west,
so too were revival movements that
sought to return to masses to genuine
faith in Christ and the gospel of salvation.
George Whitefield arrived in the colonies
from England in 1739, and experienced
wide success with his revival sermons.
Jonathan Edwards was famous for his
fiery sermons in which he described in
detail the torments of those who do not
have personal faith in Jesus Christ. John
Wesley was revivalist preacher and a
personal friend of Whitefield, but he
differed strongly from his Presbyterian
friend on the doctrine of predestination.
Wesley founded a small group of
preachers and bible students, who
focused on holy living and came to be
called the "Methodists."
Today, Christianity is the largest world
religion, with about 2 billion adherents. It
is the majority religion of Europe and the
Americas, and there are churches in
almost every nation in the world. There
are perhaps thousands of Christian
denominations, all of whom believe in the
basic doctrines established at the Council
of Nicea but differ in other matters of
doctrine and practice. In recent years,
there has been a growing movement
among these denominations to work
together in unity for the good of the
world. In 1948, the World Council of
Churches was founded to that end.
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Buddhism
Buddhism was founded by an Indian
prince named Siddharta Gautama around
the year 500 BCE. According to tradition,
the young prince lived an affluent and
sheltered life until a journey during which
he saw an old man, a sick man, a poor
man, and a corpse. Shocked and
distressed at the suffering in the world,
Gautama left his family to seek
enlightenment through asceticism. But
even the most extreme asceticism failed
to bring enlightenment.
Finally, Gautama sat beneath a tree and
vowed not to move until he had attained
enlightenment. Days later, he arose as the
Buddha - the "enlightened one." He spent
the remaining 45 years of his life teaching
the path to liberation from suffering (the
dharma) and establishing a community of
monks (the sangha).
Today, there are over 360 million
followers of Buddhism. Although virtually
extinct in its birthplace of India, it is
prevalent throughout China, Japan and
Southeast Asia. In the 20th century,
Buddhism expanded its influence to the
West and even to western religions. There
are now over one million American
Buddhists and even a significant number
of "Jewish Buddhists." Buddhist concepts
have also been influential on western
society in general, primarily in the areas
of meditation and nonviolence.
Buddhist beliefs vary significantly across
various sects and schools, but all share an
admiration for the figure of the Buddha
and the goal of ending suffering and the
cycle of rebirth. Theravada Buddhism,
prominent in Southeast Asia, is atheistic
and philosophical in nature and focuses
on the monastic life and meditation as
means to liberation.
Mahayana Buddhism, prominent in China
and Japan, incorporates several deities,
celestial beings, and other traditional
religious elements. In Mahayana, the path
to liberation may include religious ritual,
devotion, meditation, or a combination of
these elements. Zen, Nichiren, Tendai, and
Pure Land are the major forms of
Mahayana Buddhism.
Given the association of Buddhism with
the meditating monk, one might well
assume that Buddhism emphasizes
practices over beliefs. It is true that right
practices are important in Buddhism, but
the faith really centers on correct
understanding of human nature and
ultimate reality.
The Buddha, after all, was called the
"Enlightened One." After he became
enlightened, he taught that the way to
eliminate suffering begins with
understanding the true nature of the
world. However, the Buddha considered
knowledge important only insofar as it
remains practical. He rejected speculation
about such matters as God, the nature of
the universe, and the afterlife, urging his
followers to focus instead on the Four
Noble Truths by which they can free
themselves from suffering.
Basic Points of Buddhism
In the 2,500 years since the Buddha's
enlightenment, Buddhism has spread
over many countries, split into numerous
sects, and adopted a wide variety of
beliefs, practices, rituals and customs.
However, an essential unity centered
around the teachings of the Buddha
underlies these differences.
Is Buddhism Atheistic?
As seen in the Basic Points of Buddhism,
one general doctrine agreed upon by
Buddhists is: "We do not believe that this
world is created and ruled by a God."
However, disbelief in a creator God does
not mean that Buddhism is atheistic.
Buddhas and Deities
In Mahayana Buddhism, the universe is
populated with celestial buddhas,
bodhisattvas, and deities that assist and
inspire the Buddhist practitioner. Among
the most popular are Kuan Yin, the
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Medicine Buddha, the Laughing Buddha
and the Green and White Taras. These
and other fascinating figures are explored
in this section.
Human Nature
In Hinduism, the soul, or atman, is an
eternally existing spiritual substance or
being and the abiding self that moves
from one body to the next at rebirth. The
Buddha rejected this concept.
Purpose of Life
In Buddhism, the purpose of life is to end
suffering. The Buddha taught that humans
suffer because we continually strive after
things that do not give lasting happiness.
Reincarnation and Afterlife
The Buddha said of death:
Life is a journey.
Death is a return to earth.
The universe is like an inn.
The passing years are like dust.
Regard this phantom world
As a star at dawn, a bubble in a stream,
A flash of lightning in a summer cloud,
A flickering lamp - a phantom - and a
dream
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Hinduism
About 80 percent of India's population
regard themselves as Hindus and 30
million more Hindus live outside of India.
There are a total of 900 million Hindus
worldwide, making Hinduism the third
largest religion (after Christianity and
Islam).
The term "Hinduism" includes numerous
traditions, which are closely related and
share common themes but do not
constitute a unified set of beliefs or
practices.
Hinduism is thought to have gotten its
name from the Persian word hindu,
meaning "river," used by outsiders to
describe the people of the Indus River
Valley. Hindus themselves refer to their
religion as sanatama dharma, "eternal
religion," and varnasramadharma, a word
emphasizing the fulfillment of duties
(dharma) appropriate to one's class
(varna) and stage of life (asrama).
Hinduism has no founder or date of
origin. The authors and dates of most
Hindu sacred texts are unknown. Scholars
describe modern Hinduism as the product
of religious development in India that
spans nearly four thousand years, making
it the oldest surviving world religion.
Indeed, as seen above, Hindus regard
their religion as eternal (sanatama).
Hinduism is not a homogeneous,
organized system. Many Hindus are
devoted followers of Shiva or Vishnu,
whom they regard as the only true God,
while others look inward to the divine
Self (atman). But most recognize the
existence of Brahman, the unifying
principle and Supreme Reality behind all
that is.
Most Hindus respect the authority of the
Vedas (a collection of ancient sacred
texts) and the Brahmans (the priestly
class), but some reject one of both of
these authorities. Hindu religious life
might take the form of devotion to God or
gods, the duties of family life, or
concentrated meditation. Given all this
diversity, it is important to take care
when generalizing about "Hinduism" or
"Hindu beliefs."
The first sacred writings of Hinduism,
which date to about 1200 BC, were
primarily concerned with the ritual
sacrifices associated with numerous gods
who represented forces of nature. A more
philosophical focus began to develop
around 700 BC, with the Upanishads and
development of the Vedanta philosophy.
Around 500 BC, several new belief
systems sprouted from Hinduism, most
significantly Buddhism and Jainism.
In the 20th century, Hinduism began to
gain popularity in the West. Its different
worldview and its tolerance for diversity
in belief made it an attractive alternative
to traditional Western religion. Although
there are relatively few western converts
to Hinduism, Hindu thought has
influenced the West indirectly by way of
religious movements like Hare Krishna
and New Age, and even more so through
the incorporation of Indian beliefs and
practices (such as the chakra system and
yoga) in books and seminars on health
and spirituality.
The Sanskrit word karma means "actions"
or "deeds." As a religious term, karma
refers to intentional (usually moral)
actions that affect one's fortunes in this
life and the next. Karma (or kamma in
Pali) is a concept common to Hinduism,
Buddhism and Jainism, but interpreted in
different ways. This article focuses
specifically on Hindu beliefs about karma.
The concept of karma or "law of karma" is
the broader principle that all of life is
governed by a system of cause and effect,
action and reaction, in which one's deeds
have corresponding effects on the future.
Karma is thus a way of explaining evil and
misfortune in the world, even for those
who do not appear to deserve it - their
misfortune must be due to wrong actions
in their previous life.
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In Hindu texts, the word karma first
appears in the ancient Rig Veda, but there
it simply means religious action and
animal sacrifice. There is some hint of the
later meaning of karma in the Brahmanas,
but it is not until the Upanishads that
karma is expressed as a principle of cause
and effect based on actions. One example
is in Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5.
Karma is regarded as a fundamental law
of nature that is automatic and
mechanical. It is not something that is
imposed by God or a god as a system of
punishment or reward, nor something
that the gods can interfere with.
The word karma refers primarily to "bad
karma" - that which is accumulated as a
result of wrong actions. Bad karma binds
a person's soul (atman) to the cycle of
rebirth (samsara) and leads to misfortune
in this life and poor conditions in the next.
The moral energy of a particular moral
act bears fruit automatically in the next
life, manifested in one's class, disposition,
and character.
Hindu texts also prescribe a number of
activities, such as pilgrimages to holy
places and acts of devotion, that can wipe
out the effects of bad karma. Such positive
actions are sometimes referred to as
"good karma." Some versions of the
theory of karma also say that morally
good acts have positive consequences (as
opposed to simply neutral).
Good or bad actions create impressions
(samskaras) or tendencies (vasanas) in
the mind, which in time will come to
fruition in further action (more karma).
The seeds of karma are carried in the
subtle body (linga), in which the soul
transmigrates.
The physical body (sthula sarira) is the
field in which the fruit of karma is
experienced and more karma is created.
The purpose of life in Hinduism is thus to
minimize bad karma in order to enjoy
better fortune in this life and achieve a
better rebirth in the next. The ultimate
spiritual goal is to achieve release
(moksha) from the cycle of samsara
altogether. It may take hundreds or
thousands of rebirths to get rid of all of
one's accumulated karma and achieve
moksha. The person who has become
liberated (attained moksha) creates no
more new karma during the present
lifetime and is not reborn after death.
Various methods to attain moksha are
taught by different schools, but most
include avoiding attachment to
impermanent things, carrying out one's
duties, and realizing the ultimate unity
between one's soul or self (atman) and
ultimate reality (Brahman). See the article
on the Purpose of Life in Hinduism for
more information.
In Vedanta and Yoga teachings, there are
three types of karma:
Prarabdha karma - karma experienced
during the present lifetime
Sancita karma - the store of karma that
has not yet reached fruition
Agamin or sanciyama karma - karma
sown in the present life that will come to
fruition in a future life
The process by which karma is
understood to work through various
rebirths is as follows:
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Judaism
Judaism is one of the oldest religions still
existing today. It began as the religion of
the small nation of the Hebrews and
through thousands of years of suffering,
persecution, dispersion, and occasional
victory, has continued to be a profoundly
influential religion and culture.
Today, 14 million people identify
themselves as Jews, and nearly 3.5 billion
others follow belief systems directly
influenced by Judaism (including
Christianity, Islam, and the Bah'ai Faith).
Modern Judaism is a complex
phenomenon that incorporates both a
nation and a religion, and often combines
strict adherence to ritual laws with a
more liberal attitude towards religious
belief.
Beliefs of Judaism
The central religious belief of Judaism is
that there is only one God. Monotheism
was uncommon at the time Judaism was
born, but according to Jewish tradition,
God himself revealed it to Abraham, the
ancestor of the Jewish people. Beginning
with Abraham, God has always taken
special care of the Hebrews (who would
later become the Jews). After rescuing
them from slavery in Egypt, God revealed
the Ten Commandments to Moses, and
many more religious and ethical
guidelines in the Torah ("the Law"). Many
of the guidelines (mitzvah) emphasized
ritual purity and the importance of
remaining set apart from the surrounding
polytheistic cultures.
Aside from its staunch monotheism,
Judaism has few essential beliefs. Jewish
identity arises primarily from belonging
to an ancient people and upholding its
traditions. Dogma, while important, is
secondary. Although the medieval thinker
Rabbi Maimonides once enumerated "13
Articles of Faith," many Jews do not
accept all these, and Jewish beliefs vary
widely on theological matters such as
human nature and the afterlife.
Divisions in Judaism
Divisions within Judaism, known as
"movements," have developed in modern
times as varying responses to secularism
and modernity. Orthodox Judaism is the
most conservative group, retaining nearly
all traditional rituals and practices. At the
opposite end of the spectrum, Reform
Jews retain their Jewish identity and some
traditions but take a liberal approach to
many Jewish beliefs and practices.
Conservative Judaism lies in the middle of
the spectrum, taking a moderate
approach in its application of Judaism to
the modern world.
Jews of all movement celebrate many
special days throughout the year and
throughout each person's life. Major
religious holidays include Passover, Rosh
Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Hanukkah,
historically a minor holiday, has become
more prominent in the last century for
Jews who live in areas that celebrate
Christmas. The Sabbath, a day of rest and
worship at the synagogue, is observed
each Saturday. In Judaism, all days begin
at sunset, so all holidays begin at
sundown and end at sundown.
Events in Judaism
To recognize the role of God and the
Jewish community in each person's life,
numerous life cycle events are observed
with traditional rituals. At the first
Sabbath after the birth of a child, the
proud father is called forward in the
synagogue to recite blessings for mother
and child. Eight days after birth, baby
boys are circumcised.
At the age of 13 (12 for girls), a boy
becomes a Bar Mitzvah, or "Son of the
Commandment" and a girl becomes a Bat
Mitzvah, "Daughter of the
Commandment." The occasion is marked
by the youth's first public reading of the
Torah in the synagogue (only boys may
do this in Orthodox congregations),
followed by a large and joyous
celebration.
Jewish wedding ceremonies incorporate
many ancient traditions and symbolic
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gestures (including the well-known
breaking of glass), and divorces are
obtained within the Jewish community. At
death, a Jewish person's body is cared for
by the chevra kiddisha, the "holy society,"
who wash the body and prepare it for
burial. The deceased is treated with great
respect and never left alone. After burial,
the deceased's loved ones enter a formal
period of mourning, which decreased
gradually over the course of a year. The
dead is then remembered and honored
each year on the anniversary of death.
In addition to these special days and
ceremonies, the Jewish life is marked by
regular religious observance. Each
Saturday, Sabbath is observed by ceasing
work and spending the day in worship at
the synagogue and at home with family.
The study of Torah and other Jewish
scriptures is considered very important,
and many Jewish children attend Hebrew
school so they can study it in its original
language. In everyday life, traditional
Jews observe the laws of kashrut, eating
only foods that God has designated
"kosher." Among non-kosher, or
prohibited, foods are pork, any meat that
has not been ritually slaughtered,
shellfish, and any meal that combines
dairy with meat.
What is the Torah?
Although the word "Torah" is sometimes
used to refer to the entire Tanakh or even
the whole body of Jewish writings, it
technically means the first five books of
the Tanakh. These books are also known
as the Five Books of Moses or the
Pentateuch.
The Hebrew names of the books of the
Torah reflect not the subject, but the first
major word of each book:
Bereisheet ("In the beginning")
Sh'mot ("Names")
Vayikra ("And he called")
BaMidbar ("In the wilderness")
D'varim ("Words")
Among other things, the Torah contains
an account of the creation of the world,
God's special call to Abraham, the giving
of the Ten Commandments to Moses,
God's rescue of Israel from slavery in
Egypt, the wandering in the wilderness,
and the conquering of Canaan, the
Promised Land. The Torah is by far the
most important part of the Tanakh
because, in addition to including these
important stories, it also details the
commandments (mitzvot) God gave the
Jewish people through Moses.
Accordingly, the Torah scroll (Sefer
Torah) is the most important object in a
synagogue. The text is carefully
handwritten in Hebrew calligraphy on a
parchment made of animal skins, and the
scroll is kept in an ark (short for aron
kodesh, "holy cabinet"). The Torah has
been read publically since the time of
Ezra (c. 450 BCE). Today, a portion of the
Torah (parashiyot) is read in the
synagogue on Mondays, Thursdays,
Saturdays, and holidays.
In English, the names for the books of the
Torah are derived from Greek and
describe the general topic of the book:
Genesis
Exodus
Leviticus
Numbers
Deuteronomy ("Second Law")
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Islam
Islam is the second-largest religion in the
world, with over 1 billion followers. It is a
monotheistic faith founded by a man
named Muhammad in 7th-century Saudi
Arabia.
escalate. The ongoing conflict between
Israel and Palestine is religiously charged,
Western involvement in Middle Eastern
affairs is resented, and various hijackers,
suicide bombers and terrorists base their
actions on their Muslim faith.
Muhammad
According to Muslim belief, the angel
Gabriel appeared to Muhammad, a camel
driver, in a mountain cave and delivered a
message from the one true God. The
Prophet Muhammad dedicated the
remainder of his life to spreading a
message of monotheism in a polytheistic
world. His life's work is recorded in the
Qur'an, the sacred text of Islam.
Many Muslims, however, have denounced
this radical minority as violating both
true Islam and the true meaning of jihad,
and Islam continues to be the fastestgrowing religion in the world.
In 622 AD, the Prophet fled north to the
city of Medina to escape growing
persecution. This event is celebrated by
Muslims as the hijira ("flight") and marks
the beginning of the Islamic calendar (622
AD = 1 AH).
Eight years later, Muhammad returned to
Mecca with an army and defeated it
easily. By Muhammad's death, 50 years
later, the entire Arabian Peninsula had
come under Muslim control.
The word "Islam" means "submission,"
reflecting the religion's central tenet of
submitting to the will of God. Islamic
practices center on the Five Pillars of
Islam: confession of faith, daily prayer,
fasting during Ramadan, pilgrimage and
charity.
The Quran
The sacred text of Islam, the Qur'an, was
written in Arabic within 30 years of
Muhammad's death. Muslims believe it
contains the literal word of God as
gradually revealed to Muhammad by the
Angel Gabriel over the course of 20 years.
Also important is the tradition of the
sayings and actions of the Prophet and his
Companions, collected in the hadith.
Islam and the West have had a rocky
relationship for centuries, and in recent
years the tension has only seemed to
The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic arkan udDin, "pillars of the faith") are the five
religious duties expected of every Muslim.
The five pillars are mentioned
individually throughout the Qur'an and
Muhammad listed them together in the
Hadith when he was asked to define
Islam.
Within a few decades of Muhammad's
death, the five practices were singled out
to serve as anchoring points in the
Muslim community and designated
"pillars." Fulfillment of the Five Pillars is
believed to bring rewards both in this life
and in the afterlife.
The pillars are acknowledged and
observed by all sects of Muslims, although
Shi'ites add further obligatory duties,
including: jihad, payment of the imam's
tax, the encouragement of good deeds and
the prevention of evil.
The Five Pillars of Islam are:
Daily confession of faith (shahada)
Daily ritual prayer (salat)
Paying the alms tax (zakat)
Fasting during the month of Ramadan
(sawm)
Pilgrimmage to Mecca (hajj)
What do Muslims believe about God?
The single most important belief in Islam,
and arguably the central theme of Islam,
is that there is one God. The Muslim name
for God is Allah, which is simply Arabic
for "the (al) God (Ilah)." The term is
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related to Elohim, the Hebrew word for
God.
What is Allah like?
Muslims believe that God is the allpowerful Creator of a perfect, ordered
universe. He is transcendent and not a
part of his creation, and is most often
referred to in terms and with names that
emphasize his majesty and superiority.
Among the 99 Beautiful Names of God
(Asma al-Husna) in the Qur'an are: the
Creator, the Fashioner, the Life-Giver, the
Provider, the Opener, the Bestower, the
Prevailer, the Reckoner, the Recorder, the
King of Kingship and the Lord of the
Worlds.
What can Muslims know about Allah?
Although the God of Islam has revealed
his will through the prophets, his actual
nature remains ultimately unknowable.
According to one Islamic scholar, God's
will "is all we have, and we have it in
perfection in the Qur'an. But Islam does
not equate the Qur'an with the nature or
essence of God. It is the Word of God, the
Commandment of God, the Will of God.
But God does not reveal Himself to
anyone." {2} In the words of another
writer, "only adjectival descriptions are
attributed to the divine being, and these
merely as they bear on the revelation of
God's will for man. The rest remains
mysterious." {3}
Along with Judaism and Christianity,
Islam belongs to the religious category of
"ethical monotheism." Allah is a God of
justice, who expects righteous behavior
and submission to the divine will (the
word Islam means "submission," and a
Muslim is literally "one who submits")
and punishes unrighteousness.
"If ye love Allah, follow me; Allah will love
and forgive you your sins." (Qur'an 3:31)
"Allah loves not transgressors" (2:190)
"He loves not creatures ungrateful or
wicked" (2:276)
"Allah loves not those who do wrong"
(3:57, 140)
"Allah loves not the arrogant, the
vainglorious" (4:36).
Yet divine mercy is not absent from the
Qur'an. It teaches that God will respond to
anyone who cries out to him in distress
and that he mercifully provides guidance
to humanity so they can follow "the
straight path." {7} The primary way God
has done this is through his prophets or
messengers, the last and most important
of which is the Prophet Muhammad.
Despite God's transcendence and ultimate
unknowability, however, the Qur'an does
not teach that God does not know us, nor
that he remains aloof in some distant
heaven. Quite the contrary: He is present
everywhere {4} and "as close to a man as
the vein in his neck." {5}
The one thing that is made abundantly
clear, however, is that Allah is One. He is
unique and indivisible. The Qur'an
repeatedly emphasizes strict
monotheism, explicitly rejecting both
polytheism and the Christian concept of
the Trinity. {6}
Characteristics of Allah
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Confucianism
Confucianism is a way of life taught by
Confucius in the 6th–5th century BC.
Sometimes viewed as a philosophy,
sometimes as a religion, Confucianism is
perhaps best understood as an allencompassing humanism that neither
denies nor slights Heaven.
Confucianism has been followed by the
Chinese for more than two millennia. It
has deeply influenced spiritual and
political life in China; its influence has
also extended to Korea, Japan, and
Vietnam. East Asians may profess
themselves to be Shintoists, Taoists,
Buddhists, Muslims, or Christians - but
seldom do they cease to be Confucians.
Fast Facts
Date founded: 6th-5th cent. BC
Place founded: China
Founder: Confucius (551-479 BC)
Adherents: 5-6 million
Confucius, the common name of
Confucianism's founder, is a Latinized
form of the Chinese K'ung-fu-tzu, "Master
K'ung."
The terms "Confucianism" and
"Confucian," derived from the Latinized
Confucius, are not meaningful terms in
Chinese. They are western terms, coined
in Europe as recently as the 18th century.
History
Life of Confucius
Confucius was born in 551 BC in the small
feudal state of Lu in what is now
Shantung Province. Confucius' ancestors
were probably members of the
aristocracy who had become virtual
poverty-stricken commoners by the time
of his birth. His father died when
Confucius was only three years old.
Instructed first by his mother, Confucius
then distinguished himself as a passionate
learner in his teens.
Confucius had served in minor
government posts managing stables and
keeping books for granaries before he
married a woman of similar background
when he was 19. It is not known who
Confucius' teachers were, but his mastery
of the six arts—ritual, music, archery,
charioteering, calligraphy, and
arithmetic—and his familiarity with the
classical traditions, notably poetry and
history, enabled him to start a brilliant
teaching career in his 30s.
Confucius developed concepts about
education, society and government that
he hoped to put into practice in a political
career. But his loyalty to the king
alienated him from the power holders of
the time, the large Chi families, and his
moral rectitude did not sit well with the
king's inner circle, who enraptured the
king with sensuous delights. At 56, when
he realized that his superiors were
uninterested in his policies, Confucius left
the country in an attempt to find another
feudal state to which he could render his
service. Despite his political frustration he
was accompanied by an expanding circle
of students during this self-imposed exile
of almost 12 years. His reputation as a
man of vision and mission spread.
At the age of 67 Confucius returned home
to teach and to preserve his cherished
classical traditions by writing and editing.
He died in 479 BC, at the age of 73. In the
Analects (2:4), Confucius is recorded as
summarizing his life this way:
At 15 I set my heart on learning; at 30 I
firmly took my stand; at 40 I had no
delusions; at 50 I knew the Mandate of
Heaven; at 60 my ear was attuned; at 70 I
followed my heart's desire without
overstepping the boundaries of right.
Also in the Analects, Confucius assists a
student who was having difficulty
describing him:
Why did you not simply say something to
this effect: he is the sort of man who
forgets to eat when he engages himself in
vigorous pursuit of learning, who is so full
of joy that he forgets his worries, and who
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does not notice that old age is coming on?
(7:18)
Confucianism
The story of Confucianism does not really
begin with Confucius, nor was Confucius
the founder of Confucianism in the same
way that Buddha was the founder of
Buddhism. Rather, Confucius considered
himself a transmitter who consciously
tried to retrieve the meaning of the past
by breathing vitality into seemingly
outmoded rituals. Confucius' love of
antiquity was motivated by his strong
desire to understand why certain rituals,
such as the ancestral cult, reverence for
Heaven, and mourning ceremonies, had
survived for centuries. He had faith in the
cumulative power of culture. Confucius'
sense of history was so strong that he saw
himself as a conservationist responsible
for the continuity of the cultural values
and the social norms that had worked so
well for the civilization of the Chou
dynasty.
Mencius, Xunzi, and others sustained
Confucianism after Confucius, but it was
not influential until Dong Zhongshu
emerged in the 2nd century BC.
Confucianism was then recognized as the
Han state cult (introducing religious
elements and sacrifices to Confucius), and
the Five Classics (see Texts, below)
became the core of education.
In spite of the strong influence of Daoism
and Buddhism, Confucian ethics have had
the strongest influence on the moral
fabric of Chinese society. A revival of
Confucian thought in the 11th century
produced Neo-Confucianism, a major
influence in Korea during the Choson
dynasty and in Japan during the
Tokugawa period.
In 1530 AD, a Ming emperor reformed the
Confucian cult to focus more on
Confucius' teachings than the sage himself
(e.g. images of Confucius were replaced
with inscribed tablets). The cult of
Confucius declined after the founding of
the Chinese Republic in 1912, but the
influence of Confucianism continues.
Beliefs
The main principle of Confucianism is ren
("humaneness" or "benevolence"),
signifying excellent character in accord
with li (ritual norms), zhong (loyalty to
one's true nature), shu (reciprocity), and
xiao (filial piety). Together these
constitute de (virtue).
Confucianism is characterized by a highly
optmistic view of human nature. The faith
in the possibility of ordinary human
beings to become awe-inspiring sages and
worthies is deeply rooted in the
Confucian heritage (Confucius himself
lived a rather ordinary life), and the
insistence that human beings are
teachable, improvable, and perfectible
through personal and communal
endeavour is typically Confucian.
Confucius regarded Heaven (T'ien) as a
positive and personal force in the
universe; he was not, as some have
supposed, an agnostic or a skeptic.
Practices
Aside from its important ethical
principles, Confucianism does not
prescribe any specific rituals or practices.
These are filled by the practices of
Chinese religion, Taoism, Buddhism, or
other religion which Confucians follow.
Texts
The Lun-yü (Analects) are the most
revered sacred scripture in the Confucian
tradition. It was probably compiled by the
second generation of Confucius' disciples.
Based primarily on the Master's sayings,
preserved in both oral and written
transmissions, it captures the Confucian
spirit in the same way that the Platonic
dialogues embody Socratic teachings.
The Confucian Canon achieved its present
form in the Sung dynasty under the
direction of Chu Hsi (1130-1200). It
consists of the Five Classics and the Four
Books.
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The Five Classics are:
Shu Ching (Classic of History) - collection
of documents and speeches dating from
the Later Han Dynasty (23-220 CE)
Shih Ching (Classic of Odes) - collection of
300 poems and songs from the early Chou
Dynasty (1027-402 BC)
I Ching (Classic of Changes) - collection of
texts on divination based on a set of 64
hexagrams that reflect the relationship
between Yin and Yang in nature and
society
Ch'un Ching (Spring and Autumn Annals)
- extracts from the history of the state of
Lu 722-484, said to be compiled by
Confucius
Li Ching (Classic of Rites) - consists of
three books on the Li (Rites of Propriety)
The Four Books are:
Lun Yu (Analects) of Confucius
Chung Yung (Doctrine of the Mean)
Ta Hsueh (Great Learning)
Meng Tzu (Mencius)
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