Download APES Study Guide - Central Magnet School

APES Study Guide
I.
II.
Facts to know about the APES Exam
a. 3 hours long – 90 minutes Multiple choice; 90 minutes FRQ
b. Multiple choice is 60% of your score and consists of 100 questions
i. No penalty for wrong answers so ANSWER EVERY QUESTION!
ii. Skip difficult questions and come back to them at the end.
iii. With 5 minutes left, if you still have unanswered questions, fill in
an answer!
c. FRQ – 40% of your score. There are four FRQs
i. 1 data set question – usually table, graph or chart
interpretation/analysis
ii. 1 document based question – usually a short newspaper article
from the imaginary town of Freemont
iii. 2 synthesis and evaluation questions – usually one contains
mathematical calculations and the other requires you to design an
experiment
d. You need to bring:
i. Number 2 pencils (for multiple choice)
ii. Pens with black or blue ink (for FRQ)
iii. NO calculators! You must do all math by hand
iv. ID
v. Eraser!
Topic Outline Assessment
a. The topic outline lists the topics found on the APES exam
b. Look at each subtopic and determine if you could write a short essay on
that subtopic.
i. If you could write a short essay on that subtopic, draw a line
through that subtopic
ii. If you could NOT write a short essay on that subtopic, highlight it
iii. Add the number of subtopics that you highlighted for each topic
and right that number to the left of the topic
iv. Whichever sections you knew the least (had the highest numbers)
are the ones you need to focus on the most when studying for the
exam
v. Pay attention to the total number you have under each major topic
and the percentage of questions on the exam for that topic. Let that
information help guide you towards which topics are the most
important for you to review.
APES Topic Outline
Earth Systems and Resources (10–15%)
 Earth Science Concepts
(Geologic time scale; plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanism; seasons; solar
intensity and latitude)
 The Atmosphere
(Composition; structure; weather and climate; atmospheric circulation and the
Coriolis Effect; atmosphere–ocean interactions; ENSO)
 Global Water Resources and Use
(Freshwater/saltwater; ocean circulation; agricultural, industrial, and domestic
use; surface and groundwater issues; global problems; conservation)
 Soil and Soil Dynamics
(Rock cycle; formation; composition; physical and chemical properties; main soil
types; erosion and other soil problems; soil conservation
The Living World (10–15%)
 Ecosystem Structure
(Biological populations and communities; ecological niches; inter- interactions
among species; keystone species; species diversity and actions edge effects; major
terrestrial and aquatic biomes)
 Energy Flow
(Photosynthesis and cellular respiration; food webs and trophic levels; ecological
pyramids)
 Ecosystem Diversity
(Biodiversity; natural selection; evolution; ecosystem services)
 Natural Ecosystem Change
(Climate shifts; species movement; ecological succession)
 Natural Biogeochemical Cycles
(Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, water, conservation of matter)
Population (10–15%)
 Population Biology Concepts
(Population ecology; carrying capacity; reproductive strategies; survivorship)
 Human Population
Human population dynamics
(Historical population sizes; distribution; fertility rates; growth rates and doubling
times; demographic transition; age-structure diagrams)
 Population size
(Strategies for sustainability; case studies; national policies)
 Impacts of population growth
(Hunger; disease; economic effects; resource use; habitat destruction)
Land and Water Use (10–15%)
 Agriculture
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Feeding a growing population
(Human nutritional requirements; types of agriculture; Green Revolution; genetic
engineering and crop production; deforestation; irrigation; sustainable agriculture)
Controlling pests
(Types of pesticides; costs and benefits of pesticide use; integrated pest
management; relevant laws)
Forestry
(Tree plantations; old growth forests; forest fires; forest management; national
forests)
Rangelands
(Overgrazing; deforestation; desertification; rangeland management; federal
rangelands)
Other Land Use
Urban land development
(Planned development; suburban sprawl; urbanization)
Transportation infrastructure
(Federal highway system; canals and channels; roadless areas; ecosystem
impacts)
Public and federal lands
(Management; wilderness areas; national parks; wildlife refuges; forests;
wetlands)
Land conservation options
(Preservation; remediation; mitigation; restoration)
Sustainable land-use strategies
Mining
(Mineral formation; extraction; global reserves; relevant laws and treaties)
Fishing
(Fishing techniques; overfishing; aquaculture; relevant laws and treaties)
Global Economics
(Globalization; World Bank; Tragedy of the Commons; relevant laws and treaties)

Energy Resources and Consumption (10–15%) [C5]
 Energy Concepts
(Energy forms; power; units; conversions; Laws of Thermodynamics)
 Energy Consumption
 History
(Industrial Revolution; exponential growth; energy crisis)
 Present global energy use
 Future energy needs
 Fossil Fuel Resources and Use
(Formation of coal, oil, and natural gas; extraction/purification methods; world
reserves and global demand; synfuels; environmental advantages/disadvantages of
sources)
 Nuclear Energy
(Nuclear fission process; nuclear fuel; electricity production; nuclear reactor
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types; environmental advantages/disadvantages; safety issues; radiation and
human health; radioactive wastes; nuclear fusion)
Hydroelectric Power
(Dams; flood control; salmon; silting; other impacts)
Energy Conservation
(Energy efficiency; CAFE standards; hybrid electric vehicles; mass transit)
Renewable Energy
(Solar energy; solar electricity; hydrogen fuel cells; biomass; wind energy; smallscale hydroelectric; ocean waves and tidal energy; geothermal; environmental
advantages/disadvantages)
Pollution (25–30%) [C6]
 Pollution Types
 Air pollution
(Sources—primary and secondary; major air pollutants; measurement units;
smog; acid deposition—causes and effects; heat islands and temperature
inversions; indoor air pollution; remediation and reduction strategies; Clean Air
Act and other relevant laws)
 Noise pollution
(Sources; effects; control measures)
 Water pollution
(Types; sources, causes, and effects; cultural eutrophication; groundwater
pollution; maintaining water quality; water purification; sewage treatment/septic
systems; Clean Water Act and other relevant laws)
 Solid waste
(Types; disposal; reduction)
 Impacts on the Environment and Human Health
 Hazards to human health
(Environmental risk analysis; acute and chronic effects; dose-response
relationships; air pollutants; smoking and other risks)
 Hazardous chemicals in the environment
(Types of hazardous waste; treatment/disposal of hazardous waste; cleanup of
contaminated sites; biomagnification; relevant laws)
 Economic Impacts
(Cost-benefit analysis; externalities; marginal costs; sustain- sustainability)
Global Change (10–15%) [C7]
 Stratospheric Ozone
(Formation of stratospheric ozone; ultraviolet radiation; causes of ozone
depletion; effects of ozone depletion; strategies for reducing ozone depletion;
relevant laws and treaties)
 Global Warming
(Greenhouse gases and the greenhouse effect; impacts and consequences of global
warming; reducing climate change; relevant laws and treaties)
 Loss of Biodiversity
o Habitat loss; overuse; pollution; introduced species; endangered and
extinct species
o Maintenance through conservation
o Relevant laws and treaties
III.
Tips for writing APES Essays
a. Read the question carefully and FOLLOW directions! Be sure you know
the difference between describe, compare, design, etc.
b. Do NOT restate the question! You do not get any points for this and it
wastes time
c. Pace yourself. Allow 22 minutes for each question. If you have time at the
end, you can go back and do more on any particular question.
d. Organize and LABEL the question as it is asked
e. Define your terms! A simple rule of thumb is identify (1 sentence)
Describe (2-3sentences), Explain/discuss (3+sentences)
f. Go into DETAIL that in on the subject and to the point. Be sure to state
the obvious. Remember that no detail is too small to be included as long
as it is to the point.
g. Be specific whenever possible!
h. Be sure to relate cause to effect. Who or what is affected? Why or how?
BE SPECIFIC when possible.
i. Develop your ideas completely as possible but avoid repeating yourself
j. Follow all instructions! If the instructions say cite three examples, only the
first three things will be evaluated regardless of the quality of your
subsequent answers.
k. You are not penalized for wrong information so long as it does not
contradict points you have made in other parts of your essay.
l. For lab questions or design experiment questions, be certain to include
i. Testable hypothesis
ii. Be certain that the experiment is feasible
iii. Dependent, independent and controlled variables
1. remember to test only ONE variable
iv. A procedure that is possible to test your hypothesis
v. Define the test group nad the control group
vi. Explain the materials needed
vii. Explain what you will measure and how
viii. Explain how you will analyze your data
ix. Explain expected results
x. Be creative and organized
m. You MUST write in COMPLETE SENTENCES to receive credit.
Outlines, diagrams and bulleted lists will not be scored!
n. Write neatly and clearly in blue or black ball point pen.
o. Don’t leave any question blank. Answer as much as you can REMEMBER,
there is no penalty for a wrong answer so long as you don’t contradict
yourself so give every part of every question and answer.
p. SHOW WORK ON ALL CALCULATIONS!!!! Show exactly how you
calculated each answer
q. Show ALL units in every part of your calculations!!
IV.
r. When asked for a solution, “education” will almost always be an
acceptable answer if you specify who needs to be educated and how. (For
instance, to decrease toxin related birth defects, you might educate women
on how to avoid toxins while pregnant)
s. Know the difference between economic, ecological and environmental
effects – be sure you answer appropriately
t. Know the difference between pesticides and fertilizers and the effects of
each on crop growth, types of pollution and human health
u. The following buzz words are not specific enough alone to earn you points.
To earn points you will have to elaborate
i. Pollution
ii. Habitat destruction
iii. Alters the environment
iv. Organisms negatively affected
v. Environmental degredation
vi. Changes in air, soil, and water quality
vii. Adverse effects on ecosystem
v. When graphing
i. Place independent variable on the x-axis
ii. Place dependent variable on the y-axis
iii. Title your graph
iv. Labe your axes (be sure to include units!)
v. Create the graph described (best fit or smooth curve or histogram)
Legislation
a. Review all Environmental legislation! You especially need to know:
1900
Lacey Act
1934
Taylor Grazing Act
1935
Soil Conservation Act/
Soil and Water
Conservation Act
prohibits the transport of live, dead, or parts of wild animals across state lines
without a federal permit
allowed the Department of the Interior to issue grazing permits and collect
fees to graze animals on public land
(RCA) established the Soil Conservation Service in the USDA; focused on
erosion control; 1977: provides the USDA broad strategic assessment and
planning authority for the conservation, protection, and enhancement of soil,
water, and related natural resources
levied a tax on all sales of guns and ammunition; taxes used to buy land for
wildlife conservation, to support wildlife research, and to reintroduce wildlife
in depleted areas
1947
Federal Aid in Wildlife
Restoration Act
Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act
(FIRFA)
1957
Price-Anderson Act
Promoted nuclear power by miniting the liability of power plant owners or the
government in the event of ana accident
1960
Multiple Use and
Sustained Yield Act
National forests are to be used for recreation, and hunting, not just timber
and mining
1937
Requires all comercial pesticides be approved by the EPA for general or
restricted use - protects from dangerous and persistant pesticides; 1972
registration and testing of pesticides required
regulations to prevent hazardous airborne contaminants from reaching and
harming the public; enforced by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
199: set emmision standards for cars and limits for releasing air pollutants;
1970- EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS);
1977: set new dates for reaching NAAQS; 1990 amendments to address acid
rain, ground level ozone and stratospheric ozone depletion
1963
Clean Air Act
1964
Wilderness Act
1964
Federal Water Pollution
Control Act (Clean
Water Act)
established the National Wilderness Preservation system which protects
primitive areas in the US
restore and maintain US waters; 1972 and 1977 regulate discharges of
pollutants into water including point source pollutants; gave EPA power to
implement pollution control programs; funded the construction of sewage
treatment
1969
National Environmental
Policy Act
requires environmental impact statements for all major federal projects
1973
Endangered Species
Act
identifies threatened and endangered species and their habitats in the US
and puts their protection ahead of economic concerns; USFWS and USNMF
must establish programs to protect endangered organisms
1974
Safe Drinking Water
Act
set maximum contaminant levels for pollutants that may have adverse effects
on human health in public drinking water
1975
1980
Energy Policy and
Conservation Act
Comprehensive
Environmental
Response,
Compensation, and
Liability Act
promotes conservation and efficient use of energy
Superfund, designed to identify and clean up abandoned hazardous waste
dump sites
b. You also need to know the following international treaties
1987
Convention on
International Trade in
Endangered Species in
Wild Fauna and Flora
1991
Montreal Protocol on
Protecting
Stratospheric Ozone
Protocol on
Environmental
Protection to the
Antarctic Treaty
1992
Convention of the
Prevention of Marine
Pollution by Dumping of
Waste and Other
Matter (London
Dumping Convention)
1987
(CITES) regulates international trade of endangered species
Phase out use and production of CFC's
Madrid Protocol: Morotorium on mineral exploration for 50 years in Antarctica
(LDC) control ocean pollution; prohibits dumping of high level radioactive
wastes, heavy metals, and other hazardous materials
1997
V.
Kyoto Protocol
controlling global warming by setting greenhouse gas emissions targets for
developed countries
Common misconceptions to avoid
a. Global warming vs ozone depletion
i. Global warming is caused by greenhouse gases mainly released by
the burning of fossil fuels. CO2, CO, and methane are main
greenhouse gases. ***Tropospheric ozone (O3) is formed from
sunlight, NOx, VOCs, water and oxygen in the atmosphere. O3 is a
greenhouse gas in the troposphere HOWEVER, this is NOT the
same ozone that is in the ozone layer in the stratosphere!!!!
ii. Ozone depletion is due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Carbon
based molecules do NOT affect ozone depletion and ozone
depletion is NOT part of the greenhouse effect!!
b. Individuals do NOT evolve, populations evolve!
VI. 115 Ways to go APES
Courtesy of: Pamela J. Shlachtman, Miami Palmetto High School
Ionizing radiation: enough energy to knock electrons from atoms forming ions; capable
of causing cancer (ex. gamma rays, x-rays, UV rays).
High quality energy: organized and concentrated; can perform useful work (ex. fossil
fuel, nuclear).
Low quality energy: disorganized, dispersed (ex. heat in ocean or air, solar).
First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed, but may be
converted from one form to another.
Second Law of Thermodynamics: when energy is changed from one form to another,
some useful energy is always degraded into lower quality energy (usually heat).
Natural radioactive decay: unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha
and beta particles.
Half life: the amount of time necessary for 1/2 of a given parent isotope to decay.
Estimate of how long a radioactive isotope must be stored until it decays to a safe
level: approximately 10 half lives.
Nuclear fission: nuclei of isotopes split apart when struck by neutrons.
Nuclear fusion: two isotopes of light elements forced together at high temperatures until
they fuse to form a heavier nucleus.
Ore: a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable
to mine.
Mineral reserve: identified deposits currently profitable to extract.
Best solution to energy shortage: conservation and increased efficiency.
Surface mining: cheaper and can remove more mineral, less hazardous to workers.
Humus: organic, dark material remaining after decomposition by microorganisms.
Leaching: removal of dissolved materials from soil by water moving downwards.
Illuvialtion: deposit of leached material in lower soil layers (B).
Loam: perfect agricultural soil with equal proportions of sand, silt and clay.
Solutions to soil problems: conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour plowing, organic
fertilizers.
Parts of the hydrologic cycle: evaporation, transpiration, runoff, condensation,
precipitation, infiltration.
Aquifer: any water bearing layer in the ground.
Cone of depression: lowering of the water table around a pumping well.
Salt water intrusion: near the coast, overpumping of groundwater causes saltwater to
move into the aquifer.
ENSO: El Nino Southern Oscillation, see-sawing of air pressure over the South Pacific.
During an El Nino year, trade winds weaken and warm water sloshes back to South
America. During a non El Nino year, easterly trade winds and ocean currents pool warm
water in the western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient rich water off the west coast
of South America.
Effects of El Nino: upwelling decreases disrupting food chains; northern US has mild
winters; SW US has increased rainfall; less Atlantic Hurricanes.
Nitrogen fixing: because atmospheric N cannot be used directly by plants, it must first
be converted into ammonia by bacteria.
Ammonification: decomposers convert organic waste into ammonia.
Nitrification: ammonia is converted to nitrate ions (NO3).
Assimilation: inorganic N is converted into organic molecules such as DNA/amino acids
and proteins.
Denitrification: bacteria convert ammonia back into N.
Phosphorous does not circulate as easily as N because: it does not exist as a gas, but is
released by weathering of phosphate rocks.
Because soils contain very little phosphorous: it is a major limiting factor for plant
growth.
Excess phosphorous is added to aquatic ecosystems by: runoff of animal wastes;
fertilizer discharge of sewage.
Photosynthesis: plants convert atmospheric carbon (CO2) into complex carbohydrates
(glucose C6H12O6).
Aerobic respiration: oxygen consuming producers; consumers and decomposers break
down complex organic compounds and convert carbon back into CO2.
Largest resevoirs of carbon: carbonate rocks first, then oceans.
Biotic/abiotic: living and nonliving components in an ecosystem.
Producer/autotroph: photosynthetic life.
Major trophic levels: producers - primary consumer - secondary consumer - tertiary
consumer.
Energy flow in food webs: only 10% of the usable energy is transferred.
Why is only 10% transferred: usable energy lost as heat; not all biomass is digested
and absorbed; predators expend energy to catch prey.
Primary succession: development of communities in a lifeless area not previously
inhabited by life (lava).
Secondary succession: life progresses where soil remains (clear cut forest).
Mutualism: symbiotic relationship where both partners benefit.
Commensalism: symbiotic relationship where one partner benefits and the other is
unaffected.
Parasitism: relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host.
Biome: large distinct terrestrial region having similar climate, soil, plants and animals.
Carrying capacity: the number of individuals that can be sustained in an area.
R strategist: reproduce early, many small unprotected offspring.
K strategist: reproduce late, few, cared for offspring.
Natural selection: organisms that possess favorable adaptations pass them on to the next
generation.
Malthus: said human population cannot continue to increase; consequences will be war,
famine and disease.
Doubling time: rule of 70 (70 divided by the percent growth rate).
Replacement level fertility: the number of children a couple must have to replace
themselves (2.1 developed, 2.7 developing).
World population is over 6 billion.
Preindustrial stage: birth and death rates high; population grows slowly; infant
mortality high.
Transitional stage: death rate lower; better health care; population grows fast.
Industrial stage: decline in birth rate; population growth slows.
Postindustrial stage: low birth and death rates.
Age structure diagrams: broad base - rapid growth; narrow base - negative growth;
uniform shape - zero growth.
1st and 2nd most populous countries: China and India.
Most important thing affecting population growth: low status of women.
Ways to decrease birth rate: family planning, contraception, economic rewards and
penalties.
Percent water on earth by type: 97.5% saline, 2.5% fresh.
Salinization of soil: in arid regions, water evaporates leaving salts behind.
Ways to conserve water: agriculture - drip/trickle irrigation, industry - recycling, home use gray water, repair leaks, low flow fixtures.
Point vs. nonpoint sources: Point - from specific location such as a pipe, Non-point from over an area such as runoff.
BOD: biological oxygen demand, amount of dissolved oxygen needed by aerobic
decomposers to break down organic materials.
Eutrophication: rapid algal growth caused by an excess of N and P.
Hypoxia: when aquatic plants die, the BOD rises as aerobic decomposers break down the
plants, the DO drops and the water cannot support life.
Minamata disease: mental dispairments caused by mercury.
Primary air pollutants: produced by humans and nature (CO, CO2, SO2, NO,
hydrocarbons, particulates).
Secondary pollutants: formed by reaction of primary pollutants.
Particulate matter (source - effect - reduction): burning fossil fuels and car exhaust reduces visibility and respiratory irratation - filtering, electrostatic precipitators,
alternative energy.
Nitrogen oxides: Source - auto exhaust, Effects - acidification of lakes, respiratory
irritation, leads to smog and ozone, Equation for acid formation - NO + O2 = NO2 +
H2O = HNO3, Reduction - catalytic converter.
Sulfur oxides: Source - coal burning, Effects - acid deposition, respiratory irritation,
damages plants, Equation for acid formation - SO2 + O2 = SO3 + H2O = H2SO4,
Reduction - scrubbers, burn low sulfur fuel.
Carbon oxides: Source - auto exhaust, incomplete combustion, Effects - CO binds to
hemoglobin reducing bloods ability to carry O, CO2 contributes to global warming,
Reduction - catalytic converter, emission testing, oxygenated fuel, mass transit.
Ozone: Formation - secondary pollutant, NO2 + UV = NO + O, O + O2 = O3, with
VOC's, Effects - respiratory irritant, plant damage, Reduction - reduce NO emissions and
VOC's.
Industrial smog: found in cities that burn large amounts of coal.
Photochemical smog: formed by chemical reactions involving sunlight (NO, VOC, O)
Acid deposition: caused by sulfuric and nitric acids resulting in lowered pH of surface
waters.
Greenhouse gases: Examples - H2O, CO2, O3, CH4, CFC's, Effect - they trap outgoing
infrared heat energy causing earth to warm.
Effects of global warming: rising sealevel due to thermal expansion, extreme weather,
droughts, famine, extinction.
Ozone depletion caused by: CFC's, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, halon,
methyl bromide, all of which attack stratospheric ozone.
Effects of ozone depletion: increased UV, skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant growth.
Love Canal, NY: chemicals buried in old canal and school and homes built over it
causing birth defects and cancer.
Municipal solid waste is mostly paper.
Most municipal waste is landfilled.
Sanitary landfill problems and solutions: leachate - liner with collection system,
methane gas - collect and burn, volume of garbage - compact and reduce.
Incineration advantages: volume of waste reduced by 90% and waste heat can be used.
Incineration disadvantages: toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride-dioxin), scrubbers and
e;ectrostatic precipitators needed, ash disposal.
Best way to solve waste problem: reduce the amount of waste at the source.
Keystone species: species whose role in an ecosystem are more important than others.
Indicator species: species that serve as early warnings that an ecosystem is being
damaged.
Most endangered species: have small range, require large teritory or live on an island.
In natural ecosystems, 50-90% of pest species are controlled by predators, diseases and
parasites.
Major insecticide groups and examples: chlorinated hydrocarbons - DDT,
organophosphates - malathion, carbamates - aldicarb.
Pesticide pros: saves lives from insect transmitted disease; increases food supply;
increases profits for farmers.
Pesticide cons: genetic resistance; ecosystem imbalance; pesticide treadmill; persistence;
bioaccumulation; biological magnification.
Natural pest control: better agricultural practices; genetically resistant plants; natural
enemies; biopesticides; sex attractants.
Electricity is generated by: using steam (from water boiled by fssil fuels or nuclear) or
falling water to turn a generator.
Petroleum forms from: microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments converted by heat
and pressure into a mixture of hydrocarbons.
Pros of petroleum: cheap; easily transported; high quality energy.
Cons of petroleum: reserves depleted soon; pollution during drilling; transport and
refining; burning produces CO2.
Steps in coal formation: peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite.
Major parts of a nuclear reactor: core, control rods, steam generator, turbine,
containment building.
Two most serious nuclear accidents: Chernobyl, Ukraine and Three Mile Island, PA.
Alternate energy sources: wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells.
LD50: the amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the organisms in a test population.
Mutagen, Tetragen, Carcinogen: causes hereditary changes, fetus deformality and
cancer.
Multiple use US public land: National Forest and Natural Resource lands.
Moderately restricted use land: National Wildlife Refuges.
Restricted use lands: National Parks, National Wilderness Preservation System.
Volcanoes and earthquakes occur at plate boundaries (divergent, spreading, mid-ocean
ridges) (convergent, trenches) (transform, sliding, San Andreas).