Download Middle East - Mr. Mulford

THT MIDDLE ENST:
Cn. 8000 B.c.E.-600 c.E.
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Civilizations emerged in Mesopotamia with their own distinctive
culture and political and social structures'
City-states and empires in the Middle East sat at the crossroads of
the Silk Road and sea routes through
-ujo. trade routes, such as
the Mediterranean sea and Indian ocean, along which both
products and culture traveled.
The geographic, political, and economic characteristics of the
Middle East gave rise to the first empires'
Judaism and Christianity originated in the Middle East and had an
impact on political events and social structure'
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ChristianitY
city-state
cuneiform
Hellenism/HellenisticAge
Judaism
Mesopotamia
K , monotheism
ffi Neo-Assyrian EmPire
w Persian EmPire
w polytheism
w Zoroastrianism
Early Mesopotamian civilization is covered in the fourth and fifth
editions of ine Eafih and Its Peoples, Chapters 1 and 3' The Persian
Q?
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The Middle East: Ca. 8000 B.c.E.-600
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Empire is covered in detail in chapter 4. The Roman presence in the
region and the rise of Christianity can be found in Chapter 5.
MesoporRvn
The first domestication of plants and animals occurred in the Middle
East around 8000 e.c.s. in the Fertile crescent, which encompasses the
area from the Persian Gulf through Iraq to the area around the border
between Syria and Turkey. Jericho, located in present-day palestine,
was settled around 8000 n.C.E. It and the ruins of eatal Hiiyiik (20005000 g.c.r.), located in present-day Turkey, provide archaeologists
with evidence of early settled communities: mud-brick structures,
pottery, metalworking, long-distance tade, religion, and an
agriculture-based economy that allowed for division of labor.
By 5000 B.c.E. the Agricultural Revolution had reached
Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers.
The geography of the region allowed such development but offered
many challenges. The rivers were important sources of irrigation and
offered a means of transportation; however, their unpredictable flood
pattern made farming difflcult, and it occasionally isolated the fields,
people, and tornms. Techniques to maximize land use were
incorporated beginning around 4000 e.c.s., first with the use of oxdra'orn plows and then with the construction of imigation canals to
supply water to fields. Additionally, fields were left fallow every other
year so that the soil retained nutrients.
Beginning around 3100 e,c.p., Mesopotamia gave rise to the first
complex civilizations and empires, which over time would compete
with one another and influence lands beyond the Middle East. The
region also saw considerable cultural synthesis as customs, religion,
and langmage were adopted and adapted over time.
Success in agriculture led to the emergence of the city-state-an
urban center and the agrricultural territory it controlled. Within a citystate many worked in the flelds while others were craftspeople,
religious leaders, or political leaders. Farmers produced food for the
city, and city dwellers provided markets, as well as protection for
farmers when conflict arose with neighboring city-states.
Mesopotamian city-states were centered on two main focal points: the
temple and the palace of the king. Religion in Mesopotamia, organized
by the state, was a very public affair. Large temples constructed to
gods of the elements reflected the geographic challenges of the region
and the importance of agriculture. Temples were centrally located and
tended by priests, who were important members of society. The
importance of religion and the ownership of land-land being a source
of wealth-put priests in a prominent political and economic role.
The importance of priests, however, was surpassed by that of the
king. Viewed as the gods' representative on earth, he controlled the
army, provided protection, built lnfrastructure, and maintained justice.
A good example of strong political leadership is the Babylonian king
Hammurabi, who ruled in the eighteenth century B.c.E. Through
military campaigns he expanded Babylonian rule and implemented his
famous Law Code over the region. Inscribed on a stone pillar, the Law
Code established criteria for judicial decisions and clear, often severe
punishment for criminals.
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ChaPter 2
The rise of city-states supported long-distance trade by which
regions exchangednatural resources native to their land. (The absence
ofinoney for most of its history meant that Mesopotamia had a barter
eco.romy.) The emergence of city-states also cemented social divisions
within sbciety. Righti and privileges differed according to wealth and
profession. Hammurabi's Babylonia, with its three main classes, serves
as a good example of the divisions within such a society. The highest
class"was the free landornming class consisting of royalty, high-ranking
officials, warriors, priests, and some merchants. As trade flourished,
merchants became more prominent meimbers of society, and by the
second millennium B.C.E. guilds-profi:ssional organizationsLme.geo. In the middle were farmers, who made up the agricultural
worklorce and were often attached to an bstate o'*med privately or by
the king or temple. The bottom of the social ladder was occupied by
slaves, i"tro *oit ed mostly in a domestic capacity' Slaves were often
prisorrers of war or people who couid not repay debts. Though a
did not play a large roie in
i."r".r." in society, stiveJ in Mesopotamia
modern era.
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Social distinctions
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in
changed dramatically
As families grew
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women,s legal and
and
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Mesopotamia, *om6n could
L.rgug" in trade. Some women did work outside the home but in
spJcihc industries at the lower rungs of society. As the city-state
emerged in Mesopotamia, women's status deteriorated further with
the rise of the middle class. Marriage and divorce laws favored the
husband, and marriage was often used as a way to create ties between
families and bolster their economic standing. women were often
nothing more than economic objects'
Always pay attention to the social and gender structures of
a partlcuiai society. This is excellent information to include
*ir"r, making comparisons across time and place'
writing developed in the Middle East prior to 3300 e-c.E. and likely
evolved #o* u iftrt"* for documenting property. The system of
recording strokes ind wedges on a damp clay tablet, which hardened
as it dr[d, cuneiform reCorded first the Sumerian language and
uu"trt"uttv other languages in the region. In spite of the expansion of
people
cuneiform during ttre second millennium B.c.E., the number of
who could read and write remained small'
In addition to writing, Mesopotamians developed other important
techniques and technologies that helped advance their civilizations.
Beasts of burden such as cattle and donkeys were. employed as
important sources of power and transportation before the
domestication of the camel in 1200 B.C.E. Horses, in use by 2000 B'C'E',
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The Middle East: Ca. 8000 e.c.r.-600
c.r. *
provided another important mode of transportation. Like archers,
horsemen and charioteers revolutionized military strategy. Bronze
tools and weapons were made from imported ores, and the effective
use of clay in making bricks and pottery was instrumental in
constructing housing. Mesopotamians also developed the base-60
system in mathematics and studied astronomy.
Advances by city-states within Mesopotamia often spread through
the Middle East. In the second millennium B.c.E., interaction with other
regions increased, resulting in a cosmopoJitah period. Diplomatic and
economic interaction benefited the elite of the societies involved. The
peasants, who continued to constitute the majority of the people, may
also have seen some improvements in their lifestyles.
By 1500 B.c.E., Mesopotamia was essentially divided into two
political and cultural zones. In the south, Babylonia continued in its
position of dominance, gained under Hammurabi's leadership two
hundred years earlier. In the north, Assyria, which for centuries had
imported ore and textiles, appeared ready to conquer land and expand
its economic interests. In contrast to the smaller cibr-states of the
previous millennia, Babylonia and Assyria increased their interaction
with Eg,pt and the Hittites in Anatolia, who provided copper, silver,
and iron to much of the Middle East. The coexistence of these large
states, however, did not last long. Around 1200 e.c.n. many of the
economic and political centers in the region declined as a result of
conflict in Anatolia and the subsequent economic collapse of their
intertwined economies. For the next three hundred years
Mesopotamia experienced a period of isolation and poverty.
The Assyrians rose again to establish what many historians consider
the first empire, the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-672 e.c.s.), by
conquering and governing diverse peoples inhabiting far-off lands.
The Assyrian homeland in northern Mesopotamia, with a more
temperate climate and grreater rainfull than areas to the south, enabled
farmers to support a gnowing population and expansion. Additionally,
experience in defending themselves from invaders to the north served
many farmers well when they became foot soldiers for the empire.
The Assyrians succeeded because they had professional soldiers
armed with iron weapons and aided by a cavalry and the machinerSr
and techniques for besieging tornzns. Their expansion, because it
followed trade routes, provided immediate economic rewards, and as
neighboring kingdoms were conquered, a tribute system was put in
place. The Assyrians treated the peoples they conquered harshly.
Policies were designed to benefit the imperial center, and the use of
terror and forced deportation effectively kept the conquered people in
line and discouraged thoughts of rebellion. To administer the empire,
regional officials who had sworn their obedience to the king oversaw
payment of tribute, enforced laws, built infrastructure, and supplied
the army in their region. Though this system proved effective at
maintaining order and funneling the wealth of the region to the king,
the Neo-Assyrian Errlpire extended economic prosperity to much of
the region and expanded long-distance trade. Assyrian rule lasted
until 612 B.c.E., when the empire eroded from the hatred of its
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Chapter
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conquered peoples and its own increasingly diverse-and less
population.
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On the east coast of the Mediterranean, in about 2000 n.c.E., the
Israelites were gathering into setiled communities and transforming
the nature of religion. The Israelites were a relatively small population
inhabiting a small region poor in natural resources but strategically
located at the crossroails of important trade routes. However, their
contributions to history were large
The story of the Israelites, as documented in the Hebrew Bible,
begins with Abraham, who is considered the father of three
monotheistic religions-Judaism, christianity, and Islam. Abraham
believed that there is only one god, Yahweh, who in a covenant with
the Israelites agrreed to make them his chosen people and promised
them the land of Israel. In exchange, the Israelites would worship only
Yahweh as specified by the Ten Commandments. These beliefs in
many ways isolated Jews from others, but they also instilled a strong
sense of communiW and identitY.
The Israelites reached their political and economic peak in the tenth
century e.c.B. under King Solomon' To solidiflu the position of the
Israelites and their religion relative to others in the Middle East,
solomon constructed the First Temple. while the temple helped
Iegitir.nize Judaism, it also heightened the importance of priests. With
the expansion of the city of Jerusalem and the increased economic
opportunities of this time, society became more stratified. Others
joined the temple priests in setting themselves apart from the relatively
homogeneous group that had made the initial transition to a settled
community. Gaps between rich and poor emerged, and institutions
like marriage took on an economic as well as social significance.
women were respected for the vital role they had played in the early
history of Israel, but now they lacked the property and marriage rights
of men. women could not inherit property or initiate divorce, and
while some lVpmen worked outside the home, most assumed duties in
the home and in agriculture
when the Neo-Assyrian Empire conquered the region around
Israel in727B.c.E., much of the kingdom was destroyed and its people
deported tO the east. This destruction and deportation were repeated
in 587 e.C.B. when the Neo-Babylonian Empire attacked Jerusalem.
Despite these upheavals, Judaism survived the dispersal of Jews from
theii homeland, knoum as the Diaspora. The strength of Jewish rituals,
rules, and beliefs sustained community and identity'
Be able to describe the basic features and origins of major
religions, and note how they shape society through their
rules and expectations Tor men and women
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The Middle East. Ca. 8000 e.c.r.-600
c.r. *
'THr Prnsnru Evnng
The Neo-Assyrian Empire was followed by the rise of the Persian
Empire. Bound by Ianguage and culture, various groups that made
their homeland in modern-day Iran joined to form the largest empire
the world had yet seen. One group, the Medes, took the lead in
challenging the Assyrian Empire and precipitating its collapse.
Beginning about 550 n.c.p., the Persians, led by Cyrus, put together an
empire of staggering size, stretching from Greece to India and from
the Caucasus Mountains to North Africa. To administer such an
expansive territory, Darius I created a unique organizational structure.
He divided the empire into twenty provinces, each controlled by a
satrap, or governor. Typically related to the royal family, satraps
oversaw their territory and, most importantly, collected taxes and
tribute to send to the king. Though roads were well maintained and
patrolled, information traveled slowly, so satraps farther from the
capital enjoyed some autonomy. Darius is also remembered as a
lawgiver, and building on the decentralized nature of the provincial
system, he allowed people within the empire to live according to their
ornm traditions and rules. Darius and his followers also practiced
Zoroastrianism. A unique religion that may have influenced Judaism,
Zoroastrianism preached the belief in one supreme god, introduced
the notions of Heaven and Hell, reward and punishment, and the
Messiah-a savior sent by God.
After ongoing conflict with the Greeks in the fifth and fourth
centuries B.c.E., the' Persian Empire eventually succumbed to the
armies of Alexander the Great in 330 e.c.E. The Greek Empire then
controlled virtually the same territory as the Persians had and, after
the death of Alexander, for the next three hundred years the region
experienced the influence of Greek culture known as the Hellenistic
,
Age.
The Hellenistic Age ended with the rise of the Roman Empire.
Though centered more on the Mediterranean, Roman rule did extend
through Anatolia, and by 6 c.E. had reached present-day Israel and
Palestine. Occupying the eastern Mediterranean region, the Roman
Empire sat at the end of the SiIk Road, which brought goods from as
far away as China.
The polytheistic and pagan nature of Roman religion did not blend
well with the tenets of Judaism, and in this tense environment Jesus
and Christianity emerged. That Judaism and Christianity emerged in
the same geographic area and that Jesus was a Jew help explain many
'of the similarities between these two religions. Both are monotheistic;
further, both believe in the same god. The Five Books of Moses that
constitute the Hebrew Torah are the flrst five books of the Bible. The
Ten Commandments apply to both religions. Christians, however,
believe Jesus was the Messiah, and their Bible also contains the New
Testamen! which teils of the life and teachings of Jesus. After Jesus'
crucifidon, Paul and other followers spread Christianity in spite of
Roman opposition. In the face of hostility, many of the early converts
were women, slaves, or the urban poor-groups oppressed by Roman
rule.
The transition from settled communities to vast empires that took
place in the Middle East also occurred in Africa, Asia, Europe, and the
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Chapter
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Americas. All can be easily compared-in many respects the process
was much the same, no matter the region. As these civilizations and
empires emerged, they were bound together by the trade and
interaction that traversed the Middle East.
Multiple-Choice Questions
1.
Which of the following was the lafgest geogrraphic challenge for
the people settling in Mesopotamia?
(A) the unpredictable nature of the Tigrris and Euphrates Rivers
(B) the absence of useful building materials
(C) the grreat distance from regional and long-distance trade routes
(D) poor soil for agriculture
(E) the absence of large animals that could be domesticated and
employed in agriculture
2.
AII of the following were characteristic of city-states in
Mesopotamia EXCEPT
(A) clear social divisions
(B) provision of food for the city by farmers
(C) provision of markets and protection for farmers by citydwellers
(D) a diminished role of religion
(E) specialized labor
3.
Which of the following best describes women's roles in city-states
in Mesopotamia?
(A) The opportunity arose for women to occupy positions of
political power.
(B) They gained more freedom and choice in marriage.
(C) Women no longer worked outside of the home.
(D) Women could own property and engage in trade.
(E) Fewer children were needed" so women had more time to work
and acquire skills.
.
4.
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All of the following are true of slavery in Mesopotamia EXCEPT
(A) slaves occupied the lowest class of society
(B) slaves were primarily employed in domestic service
(C) slaves in Mesopotamia played a more important role in society
than those-in Greece and Rome
(D) most slaves were prisoners of war
(E) slaves faced harsher punishment under law codes because of
their position in societY
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The Middle East: Ca. 8000 B.c.E.-600
5.
Which of the following best describes how the Assyrians treated
the people they conquered?
(A) The king ruled directly over the people of the empire so as to
maintain tight control.
(B) Freedom and autonomy were granted to conquered people in
an effort to win their allegiance.
(C) Mass deportation and terror were use.d to keep people in line.
(D) Wealth was channeled from the cepter to the outlying areas by
the paternalistic ruler.
(E) In an effort to control subjects, all long-distance trade was
halted.
6.
The Israelites were unique in the region because of their
(A) location along the Mediterranean Sea and large involvement in
c.E.
*
trade
(B) continued existence as nomadic herdsmen while others formed
settled communities
(C) wealth of natural resources
(D) abiliff to mount a successful resistance to the Neo-Assyrian
Empire
(E) belief in monotheism and a covenant with god
7.
To control the vast Persian Empire, Darius I
(A) used terror and mass deportation to prevent uprisings
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)
@201
instituted a limited democracy
divided the empire into provinces run by governors
imposed Persian traditions and customs on all subjects
controlled all aspects of life from his capital city
B.
Which of the following is an example of Hellenism?
(A) Alexander the Great's military strategy for'expansion
(B) the presence of Greek architecture in the Middle East
(C) the limited democracy of Athens
(D) the presence of pyramids in Eg,pt and ziggurats in
Mesopotamia
(E) the extensive roads of the Persian and Roman Empires
9.
Which of the following is true of the Assyriary Persian, Greek, and
Roman Empires?
(A) They all conquered major cities and trade routes of the region.
(B) They all originated in areas rich with natural resources.
(C) Each empire bordered the Mediterranean Sea.
(D) They all instituted a centralized administration.
(E) Each overlapped with the early river valley civilizations in
Mesopotamia and Egrypt.
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Chapter
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10. All of the following are true of Judaism and Christianity EXCEPT
(A) Jews received better treatment than Christians while under
liil3,l#:""
-l"ru, as rhe Messiah while Jews stitl await the
Messiah
(C) both religions originated in present-day Israel and Palestine
(D) ttre Hebrew Torah is also part of the Christian Bible
(E) both Judbism and Christianity pre monotheistic
,u,
significant because
(A) they developed the city-state model of governing
(B) they created an alphabetic system of writing
11. The Phoenicians were
(C) they were the flrst empire in the region
(D) they"dominated overland trade routes that crossed the region
(E) they were the foundation of the Roman Empire
12.The Persian Empire imposed a tribute system in order to
(A) share its wealth with neighboring regions
(B) promote conversion to Zoroastrianism
(C) fund all of the vast expenses of the empire
(D) hoard wealth and highlight its power over its neighbors
(E) oppress women and the poor within the empire
influential because
(A) it promoted the rights of women and the idea that marriage
73. Zoroastrianism was
was a partnership
(B) key ideas such as monotheism and the Messiah were later
adopted by Judaism and Christianity
it empowered the poor to rise up against the king and caused
chaos within the emPire
(D) it provided a rigid social structure in which one's life was
(C)
dictated by gender, age, and occupation
(E)
it enabled the Persians to fend off the growing power of the
Greeks
14.
O20l
l
Which of the following statements best describes the condition of
women in ancient Greece?
(A) Women enjoyed freedom of movement and speech.
(B) Women were equal participants in Greek democracy
(C) Women were confined to the home and had few rights.
(D) The condition of women varied depending on the community.
(E) Women could own slaves and inherit property but had litle say
in marriage.
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The Middle East: Ca. 8000 a.c.r.-600
15.
c.r. *
Which of the following is true of the empires of Alexander the
Great and Darius I?
(A) The leaders of both relied on loyal local officials, who could
exercise some level of autonomy.
(B) Both empires valued Greek culture and helped spread it from
the Mediterranean to South Asia.
(C) Both were democratic empires that gave a voice to all free,
land-ornming males.
(D) Both empires benefited from long-dirtu.n." Lrade with Asia and
sub-Saharan Africa.
(E) Neither empire had an answer for the superior tactics and
technologry of the Romans, who eventually conquered their
lands.
Free-Response Questions
1,.
2.
Analyze the political changes in the Middle East from the time of
the Agricultural Revolution to 600 c.n.
Cornpare and contrast the basic features of TWO of the following
religious systems prior to 600 c.e.
polytheism
Judaism
Christianity
Mumpr-E-Csorcr Quesrorrrs
1. ANSWERT A. The flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers was
unpredictable, and the rivers sometimes changed course, which
isolated to'vrms and fields (The Earth and Its Peoples,4tr ed., p. 30/5th
ed., p. 16).
2. ANSWER: D. The two centers of power that anchored the city-state
were the palace and the temple, the ldtter of which was centrally
located in the town (The Earth and Its Peoples,4'h ed., p. 36/5th ed., p.
1B).
3. ANSWERT D. Men monopolized political life, but women could own
property, control their dowry, and engage in trade (The Earth and Its
Peoples,4ih ed., p. 39/5th ed., p. 20).
4. ANSWER: C. Slaves in Mesopotamia played a lesser economic role
than their counterparts in classical Greece and Rome (The Eatth and
Its Peoples,4tb ed' p. 38/5th ed., p. 19).
5. AruSWen: C. To prevent rebellion and break the spirit of
the
conquered people, the Assyrians employed terror tactics and forcibly
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Chapter
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uprooted entire communities (The Earth and lts Peoples, 4th ed.,
pp. 707-702/5fr ed., p. B2).
6. ANSWER: E. According to the Hebrew Bible, God made a covenant
with Israelites that made them his chosen people (The Earth and Its
Peop)es,4th ed., pp. 104-105/Srh ed, p. B5).
Darius divided the empire into twenty provinces, each of
which was run by a governor (satrap) who was often related to the
royal family (The Earth ayd Its Peoples) 4'n :d., p. 130/5ft ed., p. 111).
B. ANSWER: B. After the conquests by Alexander the Great, the lands
that came under Greek rule were influenced greatly by its culture [The
Earth and lts Peoples 4n ed.., p. 157/5tr ed., p. 130).
7.
ANSWER: C.
four major empires of this region were located along
key trade routes and beneflted from this location (The Earth and Its
Pe6ples, maps of empires, 4th ed., pp. 100, 128, 752, 764/5rh ed., pp. 81,
9. ANswER: A. The
708,734,744).
10. AruswrR: A. As monotheistic religions, both Judaism and
Christianity did not fit well with the Romans, who worshipped many
gods and also idolized the emperor (The Earth and Its Peoples,4th ed.,
p. 773/5rh ed., p. 153).
with about two
dozen s}rmbols, each representing a sound. The Greeks would add to
this system by including vowels (The Earth and Its Peop)es,4tr ed., p.
11. ANswER: B. The Phoenicians developed an alphabet
712/5t'ed., p. 91).
12. ANswER: D. The Persian Empire, like many others, imposed a tribute
system so as to collect wealth ftom those it controlled. While some of
these resources were used to pay for the empire's expenses, the king
kept much of it. The system also reminded those in the region where
power rested (The Earth and.Its Peoples,4th ed', p' 130/5th ed., p. 111).
13. AN5WER: B. Though relatively small today, Zoroastrianism was one
of the great religions of the ancient world" and its ideas were a major
influence on Judaism and subsequently Christianity (The Earth and lts
Peoples,4th ed., p. 732/5n ed., p. L16).
14. ANSWER: D. Gender roles varied across the Greek city-states. In
sparta, for example, women were expected to raise strong children,
exercise, and be seen in public. In Athens' however, women were
confined to the home and their rights suppressed (The Earth and Its
Peop)es,ltn ud., p. L47/Stb ed., p. 1'27)".
15. ANSWER: A. Alexander the Great maintained the Persian model for
ruling over a large territory, but he replaced Persian officials with his
supporters (The Earth and Its Peoples,4th ed., p. 151/5th ed., p. 130).
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The Middle East: Ca. 8000 e.c.r.-600 c.r
.i. 93
Fnee-RespoNsE Quesrorrrs
1. A good response will begin with the emergence of settled
communities after the Agricultural Revolution and then move to the
emergence of civilization in Mesopotamia. Though many civilizations
dotted the region, generalizations about government can be made and
then supported by using the specific details about the political
structure and actions of Sumeria or Babylonia. The next key aspect of
political change is the rise of empires; the political structure of the
empires was much more extensive than the political structure of the
ciff'states; empires expanded beyond their homeland, conquered
other people, and needed a bureaucracy to rule over diverse people in
distant lands. A good response would include analysis of the brutal
rule of the Assyrians and the decentralized nature of the Persian
Empire.
2.
When comparing belief systems, it is important to frame the basis of
the comparison. For example, belief systems could be compared
according to the nature of god or gods, important texts, laws that
govern behavior, or their impact on social and gender structures. In
this case, choosing Judaism and Christianity would allow for analysis
of similarities that stem from the fact that Christianity grew out of
Judaism, as well as the differences that exist. Selecting polylheism and
one of the others would allow for clear distinctions in the nature of
god(s), wfro practiced each religion, and when they originated. The
importance of religion in people's lives and the way religion influences
behavior are similarities that could be explored.
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I
Cengage Leaming.
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