Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Prepping for the Praxis
Document related concepts
Transcript
Prepping for the Praxis …Reviewing Literacy Fundamentals Maple Heights City Schools April 19, 2016 Lisa Testa, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Kent State University What is reading? What is reading? Reading is a constructive process of creating meaning that involves the reader, the text, and the purpose within social and cultural contexts. --Gail Tompkins, Literacy for the 21st Century: A Balanced Approach, 5th ed., 2010, p. 42 Comprehensive Literacy Instruction Meaning-centered, part to whole Purpose driven Reading means to construct meaning and to use everything you know to do so (Weaver, 2003). Phonics is done in context and taught as a strategy to aid in meaning-making ◦ Word identification not taught as an end to itself A sociopsycholinguistic process from www.vivianmaier.com Sociolinguistics Stresses the importance of language and social interaction in learning. Believe that oral language provides the foundation for learning to read and write. Key sociolinguist… Lev Vygotsky ◦ Theorized that language helps to organize thought ◦ Students use language to learn as well as communicate. Vygotsky suggested that students don’t learn by doing things independently Students need to be stretched to work outside of their independent level with the assistance of a more experienced, knowledgeable helper. The 5 Pillars of the Reading Process (National Reading Panel, 2000) Phonemic awareness and phonics ◦ Word play with preschoolers to help them segment phonemes ◦ Systematic teaching of the sound-letter correspondence Word Identification ◦ Students learn to recognize common or high-frequency words; saves cognitive resources for comprehension Fluency ◦ Independent reading at child’s “just right” level ◦ Can devote most of their cognitive resources to comprehension Vocabulary ◦ The building blocks of meaning-making Comprehension ◦ Gaining the strategic knowledge to make meaning from texts Phonemic Awareness “Phonemic awareness, phonological awareness (or sound knowledge and sound play) refers to a person’s awareness of speech sounds smaller than a syllable and the ability to manipulate those sounds through such tasks as blending and segmenting sounds in words” (Rasinski & Padak, From Phonics to Fluency: Effective Teaching of Decoding and Reading Fluency in the Elementary School, 2001, p. 31). phoneme smallest unit of sound phonics the knowledge of letter-sound correspondence phoneme-grapheme (letters or letter combinations) correspondence The Cueing System The 4 systems that “clue” us into making meaning! Phonological (sound) system Important for beginning readers & writers Learn to pronounce sounds as they learn to talk Learn to associate sounds with letters as they learn to read and write Students use phonics to decode words, but phonics is not a complete reading program b/c not all words can be decoded easily and reading is more than just decoding. Phonological cueing system 44 sounds in the English language, 26 letters Phoneme=smallest unit of sound Grapheme=written version of a phoneme using one or more letters Phonological awareness: being able to hear the sounds (word play, rimes, onsets) Phonemic awareness: being able to orally manipulate phonemes in words (orally segmenting) Phonics: instruction about phonemegrapheme correspondence and spelling rules Syntactic System The grammar that regulates how words are combined into sentences. Grammar literally means the rules for governing how words are combined in sentences, not parts of speech. Word order is important to making meaning. Syntactic System “The horses galloped through the gate and out into the field” Student may not be able to read “through” but could substitute with “out of” or “past” because it makes sense in the structure of the sentence. Syntactic System Morphemes=smallest unit of meaning “dog,” “cat,” “play” are all free morphemes “-s” and “-ed” are bound morphemes ◦ Plural marker or past-tense marker ◦ Change the meaning of the words they are added onto. Semantic (Meaning) System Is the student using meaning cues in an attempt to identify the word? ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Using context clues Using picture cues Using information from the passage Attending to the meaning of words Visual System Does it look right? ◦ Sometimes a miscue may begin with the same letter or letters, like: “toy” for “top,” or “sit” for “sat.” Pragmatic System The social aspects of language use. Language varies across social classes, ethnic groups and geographic regions Cues and Miscues Ken Goodman: in the late 1960s and early 1970s developed the practice of miscue analysis Premise: Readers appropriate the cues in growing levels of sophistication. A miscue is an attempt to appropriate one of the cueing systems. The teacher can determine a student’s development through analysis of their miscues. Types of miscues: What word identification strategies is the student using? Semantic or Meaning Cues Ask, “Does this make sense?” Syntactic Ask, “Does it sound right?” Visual or grapho-phonemic? Ask, Does it look right?” Basic assessment procedures Assessing early literacy: Concepts About Print Kid-watching (Goodman,Y, 1985) Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement (K-2) Yopp-Singer Test of Phonemic Segmentation (K) Basic assessment procedures Assessing phonics and word identification: Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills DIBELS (K-3) The Names Test (3-8) Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement (K-2) The Tile Test (K-2) High-frequency word lists (K-3) Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement (K-2) Writing Samples (K-3) Developmental Reading Assessment (K-8) The Names Test (3-8) Phonological Awareness Literacy Screening (K-3) Running Records (K-8) Running Records (Marie Clay) Most useful with beginning readers up through 3rd grade Teacher records everything a child says during an oral reading Miscue analysis Kid-watching Miscues Identified in Running Records Substitution Omission Insertion Repetition or one word or phrase Self-correction (no error) Intervention Beginning sound (no error) Reading teachers use assessment tools to regularly monitor students’ reading development and plan for instruction. •Informal reading inventories (IRIs) are used to determine students’ reading levels. •Phonics and Other Skills: Teachers use phonemic awareness tests •Clay’s Observational Survey to assess young children’s knowledge of phonics •The Names Test to assess older, struggling readers’ decoding ability. •They also use running records to analyze students’ word-identification errors. •Teachers use observation to monitor students’ use of reading and writing strategies. Assessments On-going Linked to instruction Formative Evaluation Summative Final Administered at the end of a unit or end of the school year See Annenberg video on assessments: http://www.learner.org/libraries/readingk2 /perez/first.html Test to determine reading levels Independent: 98-100%accuracy ◦ Can read these books for pleasure. Instructional: 90-97% accuracy; their ZPD ◦ Can read these books in guided reading. Frustration: Less than 90% ◦ Can hear these books read aloud by teacher/parent Students should be assessed regularly to determine their reading levels and to monitor their progress. Types of assessments Kits of leveled books to determine students’ reading levels Informal procedures, such as observations and conferences, to monitor student progress Test to diagnose students’ strengths and weaknesses in specific components of reading and writing Collections of work samples to document students’ learning “The effective reading teacher (a) knows what skills one must learn and in what order, (b) is able to figure out where a student is in his or her reading development (i.e., via classroom assessment), and (c) knows which skills he or she is able to learn next (i.e., his or her ZPD).” (Reutzel and Cooter , 2011, p. 6) Break What is emergent literacy? Young children begin learning about written language long before entering school ◦ SHOW TALKING TWINS VIDEO Learn that print carries meaning ◦ Menus, postcards, birthday cards, traffic and store signs What emergent readers need? Schema (Background knowledge) Access to literacy resources (books) Oral communication Be read to Models of literate behavior Phonological awareness (hearing) “Print Rich” environment Vocabulary through oral communication Strategies for unlocking meaning Schema Learning is the modification of students’ schemas as they actively interact with their environment. Analogous to a file cabinet Assimilation ◦ When students add to info they already know Accommodation ◦ Students create a brand new file for this brand new info Concepts about Print Book-orientation concepts ◦ How to hold a book Directionality concepts ◦ Read left to right, front to back Letter and word concepts ◦ Directions of letters ◦ Understanding about meaning of words Concepts about Words Level 1: Don’t differentiate between words and things Level 2: Describe words as labels for things (don’t differentiate articles or prepositions because these words don’t represent things) Level 3: Understand that words carry meaning and that stories are built from words Level 4: More fluent readers and writers describe words as autonomous elements having meanings of their own. Understand that words can be spoken, listened to, read, and written. Concepts about Words Environmental print: At first, young children depend on context to read familiar words and memorized texts, i.e., can recognize the golden arches as McDonald’s but cannot read the word, “McDonald’s” Emergent Writing: develops lines, dots to 2-3 letters with no spacing to increasing awareness of letter-sound relationship. Literacy play centers: additions of reading and writing are made to play, i.e., as students construct block buildings, children write signs and tape them on the buildings. Concepts about Alphabet Pinnell and Fountas (1998) identified these components of letter knowledge: ◦ The letter’s name ◦ The formation of the letter in upper-and lowercase manuscript ◦ The features of the letter that distinguish it from other letters ◦ The direction the letter must be turned to distinguish it from other letters ◦ The use of the letter in known words (e.g., names and common words) ◦ The sound the letter represents in isolation ◦ The sound the letter represents in combination with others ◦ The sound the letter represents in the context of a word Learning letters… …requires many, many experiences with meaningful written language ◦ Start with children’s names and environmental print ◦ Teach the ABC song ◦ Provide games and activities to talk about and manipulate letters 3 stages of learning to read Emergent ◦ Young children gain an understanding of the communicative purpose of print ◦ Move from pretend reading to reading predictable books ◦ Move from scribbles to writing patterned sentences Beginning ◦ Focus on phonics…learning to “crack the alphabetic code” ◦ Learn to read high-frequency words ◦ Can write several sentences and develop a simple story Fluent ◦ Automatic, fluent readers ◦ Develop good handwriting skills, spell many high-frequency words correctly ◦ Organize writing into multiple-paragraph compositions First reading strategies… Cross-check Predict Connect Monitor Repair Students learn these reading strategies as they participate in shared and guided reading activities and interactive read alouds. Early literacy instructional approaches Morning message Shared reading/writing Predictable books Language Experience Approach Poems Word play activities Literacy-Rich envinronment Reading Strategies and Skills Reading is a complex process involving both strategies and skills. Strategies ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ thinking that readers do as they read Affect motivation: gives confidence Deliberate, goal-directed actions Cognitive/information processing theory Skills ◦ quick automatic behaviors that don’t require any thoughts ◦ Emphasis is on effortless and accurate use ◦ Automaticity ◦ Behaviorism Types of Strategies Decoding strategies ◦ Using phonic and morphemic analysis Word-learning strategies ◦ Analyzing word parts Comprehension strategies ◦ Predicting, drawing inferences, visualizing Study strategies ◦ Taking notes and questioning Types of Skills Decoding skills ◦ Use sound-symbol knowledge and phonics rules Word-learning skills ◦ Identify synonyms, notice capitalization Comprehension skills ◦ Notice details, separate fact and opinion Study skills ◦ Consult an index, notice boldface terms, locate and remember information Mini-lessons Students need explicit instruction about reading strategies ◦ Declarative knowledge: what the strategy does ◦ Procedural knowledge: how to use the strategy ◦ Conditional knowledge: when to use the strategy Cracking the Code What does it mean to “crack the code”? English is an alphabetic language, and children crack this code as they learn about phonemes (sounds), graphemes (letters), and graphophonemic (letter-sound) relationships. Phonemic Awareness Children learn to notice and manipulate the sounds of oral language. ◦ As students grow in this important aspect of learning to read they can segment and blend sounds in spoken words. ◦ Segment: children learn to break a word into its beginning, middle and ending sounds. ◦ Blend: children learn to blend 2, 3, or 4 individual sounds to form a word Why is this such a big deal? Researchers have concluded that phonemic awareness is a prerequisite for learning to read. ◦ Once children learn that speech can be segmented into smaller units they can build on that knowledge to understand the soundsymbol correspondence. Phonemic awareness has been shown to be the most powerful predictor of later reading achievement. Cunningham and Allington(2007) Describe phonemic awareness as children’s ability to “take words apart, put them back together again, and change them” Emphasis is on the spoken words, not on reading letters or pronouncing letter names. Phonemic awareness Requires that children treat speech as an object that they shift their attention away from the meaning of words to the linguistic features of speech. An abstract endeavor ◦ Phonemes are not discrete units of speech (not concrete and measurable) ◦ Often they are slurred and clipped in speech (think tree, three, slurp) Teaching Phonemic Awareness Begin with oral activities using objects and pictures, but after children learn to identify the letters of the alphabet, add reading and writing components. Read and reread wordplay books Teach minilessons on manipulating words, moving from easier to more-complex levels. Emphasize blending and segmenting because students need these two strategies for phonics and spelling. Use small-group activities (literacy centers) so children can be more actively involved in manipulating language. As you watch this video, consider: ◦ How was phonemic awareness taught in the clip? ◦ What emergent (or beginning)literacy behaviors did you see in the video? ◦ How many instructional procedures (refer to appendix) can you identify from this clip? http://www.learner.org/libraries/readingk2/wi lson/index.html?pop=yes&pid=1726 Phonics Children learn to convert letters into sounds and blend them to recognize words. Student apply phonics concepts to figure out unfamiliar written words by applying their growing understanding of the soundsymbol correspondences in English. Why is this such a big deal? An integral part of the balanced literacy approach includes: ◦ Students being explicitly taught—intentionally, systematically, and routinely—letter-sound relationships. Teaching phonics alone is not a balanced approach, but the teaching of phonics is a central part of a meaning-centered approach. Phonics defined: Phonics is the set of relationships between phonology (the sounds in speech) and orthography (the spelling patterns of written language). Emphasis on spelling patterns because there isn’t a 1-to-1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes in English. Why doesn’t English have 1-to-1 correspondence between phonemes and graphemes? Sounds vary according to their location in the word (ex.: go-got) Adjacent letters influence spelling (ex.: bed-bead) Vowel markers such as the final e (ex.: bitbite) Etymology: what was the original language (ex.: ch digraph can be pronounces 3 ways) Phonics concepts 44 phonemes can be graphically represented more than 500 ways! Start with consonants. ◦ Most consonants represent a single sound consistently, with a few exceptions (c,g, w, x, and y) ◦ Two combination consonants: blends and digraphs ◦ Blends=2-3 consonants appearing next to each other and their individual sounds are intact ◦ Digraphs=letter combos representing single sounds that are not tied to either letter (ch, sh, th, wh, ph) Vowels a, e, i, o, u and sometimes w and y Often represent several sounds Short sound and long sound Long vowel sounds often spelled with two vowels or the VC-e combination Vowel sounds are more complicated than consonant sounds because of the variety of combinations that yield the long vowel sounds. Vowels Vowel digraphs: when two vowels represent a single sound (ex. nail, snow) Vowel diphthongs: when two vowels represent a glide from one sound to another (ex. oi and oy; see page 158 for others). R-controlled vowels: when one or more vowels in a word are followed by an r. ◦ ar and or are more consistent; er, ir, and ur not so much Vowels What the heck is a schwa? ◦ Schwa: vowels in the unaccented syllables of multisyllabic words are often softened and pronounced “uh” About and machine Represented as an upside down e Phonograms One-syllable words and syllables in longer words can be divided into two parts…onset and rime Onset=consonant sound that precedes the vowel Rime=the vowel and any consonant sounds that follow it ◦ Research has shown that children make more errors decoding and spelling the rime than the onset and more errors on spelling the vowels than on the consonants (Caldwell & Leslie 2005). decoding by analogy 37 rimes (phonograms or word families) Here’s a link to a Pinterest board for phonograms Knowing these rimes and recognizing common words made from them are very helpful for beginning readers because they can use this knowledge to decode longer words. Strategy is called decoding by analogy Phonics Rules Linguists have tried to ID rules to clarify English spelling patterns; trouble is that there are plenty of exceptions to the rules Good rules… ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Two sounds of C Two sounds of G CVC pattern Final e or CVCe pattern CV pattern R-controlled vowels -igh kn- and wr- Phonics strategies Three most useful ◦ Sounding out words ◦ Decoding by analogy ◦ Applying phonics rules Guidelines for teaching phonics Teach high-utility phonics concepts Follow a developmental continuum for systematic phonics instruction, beginning with rhyming and ending with phonics rules Provide explicit instruction to teach phonics strategies and skills Provide application opportunities, such as word sorts, making words, interactive writing Use oral activities to reinforce phonemic awareness strategies, i.e., blending and segmenting Review phonics as a part of spelling in the upper grades Assessing phonics Use a combination of tests, observation, and reading and writing samples Test to screen at beginning, middle, and end of year. DIBELS: Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills ◦ Students ability to apply phonics concepts to read two- and three-letter nonsense words (i.e., ap, jid) Names Test measures older students’ ability to decode words. List of names that illustrate phonemegrapheme correspondences and phonics rules. As student reads the names, teachers mark incorrect reading. Then teachers analyze the errors to determine which phonics concepts the students haven’t learned. Spelling As children learn about phonics, they apply what they’re learning through both reading and writing. Children’s early spellings reflect what they know about phoneme-grapheme relationships, phonics rules, and spelling patterns. Students need to learn to spell words conventionally so they can communicate effectively through writing. Stages of spelling development As young children begin to write, they create unique spellings, called invented spelling, based on their knowledge of phonology (Read, 1975). U=you; R=are; GRL=girl; TIGR=tiger CHRIBLES=troubles; MI (my).; LADE=lady Stage 1: Emergent Spelling Children string scribbles, letter, and letter like forms together, but they don’t associate the marks they make with any specific phonemes. This stage is typical of 3- to 5-year olds. Children learn these concepts: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ The distinction between drawing and writing. How to make letters The direction of writing on a page Some letter-sound matches Stage 2: Letter Name-Alphabetic Spelling Children learn to represent phonemes in words with letters. At first, their spellings are quite abbreviated, but they learn to use consonant blends and digraphs and shortvowel patterns to spell many short-vowel words. Spellers are 5- to 7-year-olds. Children learn these concepts: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ The alphabetic principle Consonant sounds Short vowel sounds Consonant blends and digraphs Stage 3:Within-Word Pattern Spelling Students learn long-vowel patterns and rcontrolled vowels, but they may confuse spelling patterns and spell meet as mete, and they reverse the order of letters, such as form for from and gril for girl. Spellers are 7to 9-year olds., and they learn these concepts: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Long-vowel spelling patterns R-controlled vowels More complex consonant patterns Diphthongs and other less common vowel patterns Stage 4: Syllables and Affixes Spelling Students apply what they have learned about one-syllable words to spell longer words, and they learn to break words into syllables. They also learn to add inflectional endings (e.g., -es, -ed, -ing) and to differentiate between homophones, such as your-you’re. Spellers are often 9- to 11-year-olds, and they learn these concepts: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Inflectional endings Rules for adding inflectional endings Syllabication Homophones Children’s spelling provides evidence of their growing understanding of English orthography. The words they spell correctly show which phonics concepts, spelling patterns, and other language features they’ve learned to apply, and the words they invent and misspell show what they’re still learning to use and those features of spelling that they haven’t noticed or learned about. Strategies for teaching spelling Segmenting the word and spelling each sound; often called “sound it out” but should be called “think it out” Spelling unknown words by analogy to familiar words Applying affixes to root words Proofreading to locate spelling errors in a rough draft Locating the spelling of unfamiliar words in a dictionary Why word identification matters… Automaticity foundational to fluency What is fluency Children move from word-by-word reading with little or not expression to fluent reading. Fluency is the ability to read quickly, accurately and with expression. To read fluently, students must recognize most words automatically and identify unfamiliar words easily. Why is fluency important? Researcher have found that fluent readers comprehend what they’re reading better than less fluent readers do (National Reading Panel, 2000). Pilulski and Chard (2005) describe fluency as the bridge between decoding and comprehension. Components of fluency Accuracy ◦ Allington (2009) suggests 98-99% accuracy Reading speed ◦ Should be at a speed that matches speech Prosody ◦ Should be appropriately phrased and rhythmically regular How do students become fluent readers and writers? Through a combination of instruction and lots of reading experiences. Teachers have two goals as they teach children to read and write: ◦ 1. teach them to instantly recognize several hundred high-frequency sight words. ◦ 2. Equip them with strategies they can use to identify unfamiliar words. Important components of fluency instruction Word Recognition=the large stock of words children automatically recognize because of repeated reading and writing using these sight words. Word Identification=Students use wordidentification strategies to puzzle out unknown words. What to teach and ways to teach Word Recognition Explicitly teach high-frequency words through repeated reading and writing experiences with the goal to develop automaticity ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ 24=kindergarten 100=1st grade Next 100=second grade 300 total=by end of third grade Word Walls Alphabetically display the high-frequency words of the grade prominently in the classroom Help struggling readers by giving them their own word set…either by flashcards, or a page in their journal. What to teach and ways to teach Word Identification Phonic Analysis ◦ Students apply their knowledge of soundsymbol correspondences, phonics rules, and spelling patterns to read or write a word. Research found that students who ID words effectively survey the letters in the words and analyze the interior components. Less proficient students at word ID look only at the first letter then guess. Decoding by analogy ◦ Teach word families and model using these phonograms to help decode unfamiliar words -ill Bill, chill, fill, hill, kill, mill, pill, quill, spill Expand to: chilly, filling, killer, refill, hilltop Syllabic Analysis ◦ Teach how to divide a word into Practice looking for familiar pattern (CVC, CV) within the syllables Practice looking for phonograms within the syllables In-con-ve-ni-ence Morphemic Analysis ◦ Students examine the root word and affixes of longer unfamiliar words in order to identify them. Dysfluent readers These readers do not read books at their independent level Do very little actual reading Teachers interfere by asking dysfluent readers to read aloud, then interrupt them with corrections. How to promote fluency Have them read independently daily at their independent level reading highinterest material ◦ Model fluent reading ◦ Encourage students ◦ Conduct repeated readings with brief texts Readers’ theatre ◦ Focus students attention on chunking words into meaningful phrases Expanding Students’ Knowledge of Words:Vocabulary Quick Write: Think of someone with a good vocabulary. Jot down what you have observed about their use of language. Is there a list of words learned people should learn? No. A good vocabulary is not tied to a specific list. There are between 1,200,000 and 2,000,000 words in English. Research shows a person can only learn 8-10 words per week ◦ This is across all content areas Reading vocabulary In 1950, the reading vocabulary of the average American 14-year-old equaled around 25,000 words In 2001, the same study showed that the average reading vocabulary equaled 10,000. Why the seriously diminished level of word knowledge? How do you learn new words Immersion ◦ Students learn the meanings of words in a word-rich environment Through lots of independent reading Through explicit instruction Strategies ◦ Students learn the meanings of unfamiliar words Through practicing explicitly taught word learning strategies. Why is vocab learning a big deal? Students’ word knowledge affects comprehension Students from lower income homes have less than half of the vocabulary that more affluent children possess, and some research posits it may be 1/5 to ¼ (Cunningham, 2009). Important that teachers assess all their students word knowledge and help those with less catch up. How do Students learn vocab words? Gradually, through repeated experiences with words (orally and in writing) 4 levels of word knowledge: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Unknown word Initial recognition Partial word knowledge Full word knowledge Incidental word learning On their own, without explicit instruction, students learn most of their words Independent reading, best way ◦ Matthew Effect (Stanovich, 1986) Capable readers learn more vocabulary because they read more, therefore, widening the knowledge gap between them and their peer who do not read as well. Read Aloud Conversation Television Keys to teaching vocabulary Immerse students in words through listening, talking, reading and writing Teach specific words through active involvement and multiple encounters with words. Teach word-learning strategies so students can figure out the meanings of unfamiliar words. Develop students’ word consciousness, their awareness of and interest in words Break Comprehension is… …the goal of reading! Incredibly complex task involving different levels of thinking, from literal to inferential, to critical, to evaluative Quick write: examine the key words in the following definition. Pair-Share. “Comprehension is a creative, multifaceted thinking process in which students engage with the text.” (Tierney, 1990 qtd. in Tompkins, p. 258). Key words: Importance of key words: Reader Factors in Comprehension Certain qualities of the reader affect comprehension. These include: ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Background knowledge Vocabulary Fluency Comprehension strategies: the critical thinking that involves problem-solving (where, when, how, to what extent to use a strategy) ◦ Comprehension skills: the steps to use a comprehension strategy; the goal is to achieve automaticity with these steps ◦ Motivation Top 3 are prerequisites for comprehension Keys to strategy instruction Explicitly model Provide guided practice Provide many instances of independent practice Gradual Release of Responsibility Comprehension strategies Activating background knowledge Connecting Determining importance Drawing inferences Evaluating Monitoring Predicting Questioning Repairing Setting a Purpose Summarizing Visualizing How Effective Teachers Focus on Text Factors Teachers teach students that stories have unique text factors: ◦ narrative genres, story elements, and narrative devices. Teachers teach students that informational books have unique text factors: ◦ nonfiction genres, expository text structures, and nonfiction features. Teachers teach students that poems have unique text factors: ◦ book formats, poetic forms, and poetic devices. Teachers encourage students to apply their knowledge of text factors when they’re reading and writing. Three most common text factors: Genre: three broad categories of literature are stories, informational books or non-fiction, and poetry Text Structures: devices authors use to organize their writing and to emphasize important ideas. Text Features: Authors use these to achieve a particular effect in their writing Text Factors of Stories Formats of stories: ◦ Picture books and chapter books Narrative Genres ◦ Folklore: stories that began hundreds of years ago and were passed down from generation to generation Include fables (brief narratives that teach a lesson), folktales (began as oral stories told as storytellers travelled from town to town) Myths (stories created to explain natural phenomena) Legends (hero tales and tall tales) ◦ Fantasy ◦ Realistic Fiction Contemporary stories Historical stories Elements of story structure: Plot: sequence of events involving the characters and the conflict(s). ◦ Types of conflict include…Character vs. nature, Character vs. society, Character vs. character, and Within a character Characters: authors develop characters through…appearance, action, dialogue, monologue Setting: location, weather, time period, time Point of view: 1st person, omniscient, limited omniscient, objective Theme: the underlying meaning of the story Narrative devices Dialogue Flashback Foreshadowing Imagery Suspense Symbolism Tone Text Factors of informational books Non-fiction genres ◦ Alphabet books ◦ Biographies Expository text structures ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Description Sequence Comparison Cause and Effect Problem and Solution Non-Fiction features Headings and subheadings Photographs and drawings Figures, maps, and tables Margin notes Highlighted vocabulary A glossary Review sections and charts An index Connecting reading and writing Tierney & Shanahan, 1996: Reading and writing should be connected because reading has powerful impact on writing, and vice versa. When students read about a topic before writing, their writing is enhanced because of what they learn about the topic. When they write about the ideas in a book they’re reading, their comprehension is deepened because they are exploring big ideas and relationships among ideas. Tools for the connections: Trade books ◦ Collecting text sets of as many different types of materials • Many types of genre Many types of media Varying reading levels Multiple cultural perspectives Mentor texts • Use as a model of quality writing Writing as a learning tool: How does a student use writing as a tool for learning… ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Taking notes Categorizing ideas Completing graphic organizers Writing summaries Emphasis on using writing to clarify ideas not to spell things correctly! Writing-to-learn activities Learning logs ◦ Place to record and react to the reading Double-entry journal ◦ Divide journal page into two parts ◦ Write different types of information in each part Facts/reactions Questions/answers Main ideas/questions Simulated journal ◦ a series of diary entries Quickwriting ◦ Activate background knowledge, monitor learning, review big ideas The Writing Process Stage 1: Prewriting ◦ Murray (1982) believes 70% of writing time should be spent in pre-writing ◦ Choosing a topic ◦ Considering purpose and form ◦ Gathering ideas (this is the time-consuming part) Draw pictures, brainstorm lists of words, read books, do Internet searches, talk about ideas with someone The Writing Process Stage 2: Drafting ◦ Begin tentatively with the ideas developed during prewriting ◦ Write quickly to get it down; not worried about handwriting or correct spelling/grammar ◦ Write every other line and label in large letters in upper right, “ROUGH DRAFT” The Writing Process Stage 3: Revising ◦ Revision is MORE than just polishing; it is meeting the needs readers by: Adding Substituting Deleting Rearranging material ◦ 3 main activities Rereading the rough draft Sharing the rough draft in a writing group Revising on basis of feedback The Writing Process Stage 4: Editing ◦ Putting the piece into its final form ◦ Focus on polishing: correcting spelling and grammar Proofreading: Unique type of reading in which students read word by word, hunting for errors rather than reading for meaning Correct errors: after errors are found, students work on fixing the errors using a colored pen. The Writing Process Stage 5: Publishing ◦ Making books ◦ Author’s chair What is differentiated instruction? Based on the assumption that students learn in different ways Multiple intelligences Learning styles Characteristics of differentiated instruction: Rigorous Relevant Flexible Complex High standards AssessmentInstruction link Flexible Grouping Reading Materials Varied Instructional Activities Modifications Respect Academic achievement Teachers modify instruction 3 ways: Differentiating content ◦ The “what” of teaching Differentiating the process ◦ The “how” of teaching Differentiating the product ◦ The end result R-E-S-P-E-C-T! Teachers create a classroom culture that promotes acceptance of individual differences and is conducive to matching instruction to individual students. Independent reading…authentic reading and natural differentiating Reading Counts Accelerated Reader ◦ Two K-12 computerbased reading programs that manage students’ daily reading practice Flexible Grouping Whole class Small groups Individuals Guided Reading Was developed to use with beginning readers, but teachers also use it with older students, especially ESL and struggling readers who need more teacher support to decode and comprehend books they’re reading, learn reading strategies, and become independent readers. Text Sets To differentiate effectively, teachers need to compile sets of texts representing multiple reading levels and genres These sets can be used during literature focus units and during thematic units. Look at Scholastic http://www.townsendpress. com/our-books/tp-libraryamp-blufordseries/productpanel_page/4 Tiered Activities Designed to match students’ needs Teachers create several tiered or related activities that focus on the same essential knowledge but vary in complexity (Robb, 2008) Tomlinson (2001) suggests the following plan to design tiered activities: 1. Design an activity. 2. Visualize a ladder. 3. Create other versions of the activity. 4. Match activities to students. Literacy Centers Contain meaningful, purposeful literacy activities that students can work at in small groups. Can be used at all grade levels. Relate to concepts, strategies, skills that the teacher recently taught in minilessons Vary in complexity See page 370 for list Differentiated projects Important part of differentiated instruction because students follow their interests, demonstrate what they’ve learned in authentic ways, and feel successful. Especially important for advanced and struggling students. Struggling readers and writers Crucial to ID students at risk for reading (and writing) problems early so as not to compound them. Clues that a student struggles: ◦ Difficulty with concepts of print, phonemic awareness, letter names, sound-symbol correspondences ◦ Slower responses ◦ Behavior issues Interventions Help students catch up by providing: high-quality classroom instruction and additional one-toone or very small group interventions. Response to Intervention (RtI) High quality instruction for all students High quality teachers Ongoing student assessment A coherent instructional plan that provides coordinated reading lessons every day for every student at every level of intervention. Interventions to help students learn how to read Special education placement on basis of ability to learn
