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ARTERIAL BLOOD GAS ANALYSIS
and
EXPIRED GAS ANALYSIS
Presented by Dr Sonam Norbu
Moderator Dr Aparna Sharma
WHAT IS AN ABG
• ABG medical technique used to check gas
levels in the blood.It typically involves using a
thin needle and syringe to puncture an artery.
• COMPONENTS:PH/Paco2/Pao2/Hco3/O2sat/B
.E i.s base excess
NORMAL VALUES
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PH:7.35-7.45
Paco2:35-45mmHg
Pao2:80-100mmHg
Hco3:21-27mEq/L
O2 sat-95-98 percent
Base excess:+/_2mEq/L
AMOUNT:needed for the analysis is
as low as o.2ml of blood.
• Syringes should be Heparinized.
• Air bubbles should not be present:lead to inc
PaO2 and dec paco2.
WHY ORDER AN ABG?
•
•
•
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AIDS in establishing a diagnosis.
Helps guide treatment plan.
Aids in ventilator management.
Improvement in acid/Base management
allows for optimal function of medications.
• Acid/base status may alter electrolyte levels
critical to patient status/care.
• Arterial lines:frequent sampling,continous B.Pmonitoring.
• Intermitent stab:infrequent sampling.
Where to place• Radial and ulnar.
• Femoral.
• Brachial.
• Dorsalis pedis ,Axillary.
… ALLEN’S TEST.
• Instruct patient to clench his fist.
• Apply occlusive pressure on both Radial and
Ulnar artery.
• Blanching of pam and finger should occur.
• Release the occlusive pressure on ulnar artery
and notice flushing of hand within 7-10
sec;denotes that ulnar artery supply is
adequate and safe to prick Radial Artery.
.. ALLENS TEST.
CONTRAINDICATION FOR ARTERIAL
PUNCTURE.
•
•
•
•
Infection at site.
Allen’s test negative.
On Anticoagulent therapy.
Severe peripheral vascular disease.
SPO2 and SaO2
• Used interchangeably but they are not same.
• When o2 saturation is measured by pulse
oximeter….SPO2.
• CO-oximeter…Sao2.
• Spo2 also called functional arterial o2
saturation.
• Sao2….fractional arterial o2 saturation.
O2 SATURATION AND PULSE
OXIMETRY
• We can know arterial blood gases and
arterial oxygen saturation from ABG
machine with help of O2 dissociation curve.
O2 DISSOCIATION CURVE
OXYGEN SATURATION and PULSE
OXIMETRY…
• ABG machine calculates O2 saturation based
on PH,Paco2, temp,by using normal adult o2
dissociation curve.
• Fetal Hb,low 2,3 DPG….curve shift Lt,
• Sickle cell,chronic hypoxia,cyanotic HD,chronic
asthma,high altitude….curve shifts Rt.
O2 SATURATION and PULSE
OXIMETRY…..
ADVANTAGE OF PULSE OXIMETRY.
• Non invasive.
• Portability.
• Continous monitoring.
• Ease of use(no calibration).
• Rapidity(warn decrease in saturation before
sign and symptom).
ABG INTERPRETATION.
• First,does the patient have acidosis or
alkalosis.
• Second,what is the primary problemmetabolic or respiratory.
• Third, is there any compensation by the
patient-respiratory compensation is
immediate while renal compensation takes
time.
ABNORMAL VALUES.
PH<7.35:ACIDOSIS(Metabolic and/or
Respiratory)
PH>7.45:ALKALOSIS(Metabolic and/or
Respiratory)
PaCo2>45mmHg:Respiratory Acidosis.
Paco2<35mmHg:Respiratory Alkalosis.
HCo3<22meq/L:Metabolic acidosis.
HCo3>26meq/L:Metabolic alkalosis.
PUTTING IT TOGETHER-RESPIRATORY
SO,
• Paco2>45 with a PH <7.35 represents a
Respiratory Acidosis.
• Paco2<35 with aPH >7.45 represents a
Respiratory Alkalosis.
• For a primary respiratory problem ,PH and
PCO2 moves in the opposite direction,for each
deviation in Paco2 of 10mmHg in either
direction,0.08PH units changes in the opposite
direction.
PUTTING IT TOGETHER –METABOLIC
and
• HCO3<22 and PH <7.35 represents a
metabolic acidosis.
• HCO3>26 with a PH >7.45 represents a
metabolic alkalosis.
• For a primary metabolic problem ,PH and
HCO3 are in the same direction and Paco2 is
also in the same direction.
COMPENSATION
• The body ‘s attempt to return the acid/base
status to normal(i.s PH closer to7.4)
• Primary problem
compensation
• Respiratory acidosis....Metabolic Alkalosis(inc
bicarbonate reabsorption)
• Respiratory alkalosis….Metabolic Acidosis(dec
bicarbonate reabsorption)
• Metabolic acidosis….Respiratory Alkalosis(dec
PCO2 i.e hyperventilation)
• Matabolic alkalosis…Respiratory Acidosis(inc
PCO2 i.e hypoventilation)
• In any uncompensated condition(alkalosis/acidosis)one of
them will remain normal and other one will either inc or dec.
• In any compensated condition: change in HCO3 and PCO2 will
be in the same direction.
• In mixed disorder:change in HCO3 and PCO2 will be in the
opposite direction.
MASS SPECTROMETRY.
• Technique by which concentration of gas particles in
a sample can be determined according to masscharge ratio.
• Used to measure inspired and end-tidal
concentration of O2 ,nitrogen,CO2,nitrous oxide,and
volatile anaesthetic agents.
• It measures concentrations in volumes percent,not
partial pressure.
MASS SPECTROMETRY…
• Vaccum pump inside the mass spectrometer
draws a gas sample from a side port in a
breathing circuit.Gas sample is passed through
an ionizer and molecules become positively
charged ion and passed through a magnetic
field.The ions with the highest mass to charge
ratio are least deflected and follow acurved
path with the greatest radius.
MASS SPECTROMETRY..
ADVANTAGES:
•
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Measure nearly every gas of importance to Anaesthesia.
Multiple agent detection.
Fast response time.
Convenience:easy to use and maintain.
Low cost.
Measurement of nitrogen:detects leaks in the aspiration
mechanism and inc in nitrogen in the breathing system.
DISADVANTAGES.
• Measurement of only preprogrammed gases.
• Necessity for scavenging.
• Long warm-up time.
RAMAN SPECTOMETRY(LIGHT SCATTERING GAS
ANALYSIS)
 PRINCIPLE:
• A Laser emits monochromatic light,which interacts with
a gas molecule that has interatomic molecular
bonds,some of its energy is converted into vibrational
and rotational modes.
• A fraction of the energy absorbed is reemitted at
different wavelengths:Raman scattering.
• APPLIED:all gases present in the respiratory gas
mixture(CO2,O2,nitrogen,nitrous oxide,and up to three
anaesthetic agents)
• Monoatomic gases(helium,xenon,Argon)donot exhibit.
RAMAN SPECTOMETRY…
 ADVANTAGES:
• Multiple gas capability:can identify and measure
CO2,O2,nitrogen, nitrous oxide,hydrogen;
• Multiple agent detection:mixture of volatile agents.
• Fast response time:slower then mass spectrometry.
• Portability.
• Fast start up time.
• No need for scavenging gases.
• High degree of accuracy.
• No Artifacts with propellants.
RAMAN SPECTOMETRY…
DISADVANTAGES:
• SIZE: Large and heavy compared to IR monitors.
• Argon and Helium cannot be measured.
• Inaccuracy with fruit-flavored oils.
• Artifacts with Nitric oxide:Nitric oxide produces
Nitrogen,nitrous oxide and isoflurane signals.
Carbon Dioxide Analysis:
• Means for assessing metabolism, circulation, and ventilation
• ASA guidelines: Correct positioning of ET tube must be verified by
identifying CO2 in the expired gas
• Capnometry: Measurement of CO2 in gas mixture
• Capnography: Recording of CO2 Conc versus time
Standard requirements of Capnometer:
• CO2 reading shall be within ±12% of the actual value or ±4 mm Hg
• Must have a high CO2 alarm for both inspired and exhaled CO2
Technology:
• Infrared Analysis
• Chemical colorimetric analysis
Infrared Analysis:
• Most common technology in use
• Principle: Gases with two or more dissimilar atoms in the molecule
(nitrous oxide, CO2, and the halogenated agents) have specific and unique
infrared light absorption spectra.
• Amount of infrared light absorbed is proportional to the concentration of
the absorbing molecules, the concentration can be determined
• Nonpolar molecules cannot be measured
• 2 technologies available:
 Black body radiation
 Microstream technology
Blackbody Radiation Technology:
• Utilizes a heated element called a blackbody emitter as the source of
infrared light, produces a broad infrared spectrum .
• Optical detectors must be calibrated to recognize only infrared radiation
that is modulated at a certain frequency by using a spinning chopper
wheel.
• Analyzer selects the appropriate infrared wavelength, minimize
absorption by other gases that could interfere with measurement of the
desired component
• Then an electrical signal is produced and amplified, and the
concentration is displayed.
• For halogenated agents: separate chamber to measure absorption at
several wavelengths (single-channel, four-wavelength infrared filter
photometers) have filter for each anesthetic agent and one to provide a
baseline for comparison
SIDE STREAM INFRARED ANALYSER
 Diverting type:
• Gas to be measured is pumped continuously through a measuring
chamber
• Filtered and pulsed light is passed through the sample chamber and also
through a reference chamber (has no absorption characteristics)
• Light is focused on an infrared photosensor
• Changing light levels on the photosensor produce changes in the
electrical current running through it
• Provides hundreds of readings for each respiratory cycle.
• Monochromatic analyzers use one wavelength to measure potent
inhalational agents
• Polychromatic analyzers use multiple wavelengths to both identify and
quantify the various agents
• Measuring cell is calibrated to zero (using gas that is free of the gases of
interest, usually room air) and to a standard level (using a calibration gas
mixture)
 Non Diverting Type:
• Gas stream passes through a chamber (cuvette) with two windows,
placed b/w the breathing system and the patient
• Sensor (has both the light source and detector) fits over the cuvette
• Sensor is heated slightly above body temperature (to prevent
condensation)
• Infrared light passes through window on one side of the adaptor, sensor
receives the light on the opposite side
• Then light goes through three ports in a rotating wheel, containing
(a) a sealed cell with a known high CO2 concentration
(b) a chamber vented to the sensor's internal atmosphere
(c) a sealed cell containing only nitrogen
• Then passes through a filter (to isolate CO2 information)
• Signal amplified and sent to the display module
• Calibration done using: low calibration cell contains 100% nitrogen, high
cell contains a known partial pressure of CO2
• Corrections for nitrous oxide and oxygen entered manually
Microstream Technology:
• Uses laser-based technology to generate infrared rays that match the
absorption spectrum of CO2
• it utilizes Smaller sample cell, low flow rate
• Emission source: Glass discharge lamp with an infrared transmitting
window
• Electrons (generated by a radio frequency voltage) excite nitrogen
molecules, Carbon dioxide molecules are excited by collision with the
excited nitrogen molecules  These drop back to their ground state and
emit the signature wavelength of CO2
• This emission now passes through main optical detector and reference
detector .
• Measurements made every 25 msec
• Because of low sample flow and small sample cell, useful for measuring:
 CO2 in very small patients
 high respiratory rates
 low-flow applications
 unintubated patients
• Readings not affected by high concentrations of oxygen or anesthetic
gases
Advantages of Infrared Analysis:
Multigas Capability
Volatile Agent Detection
Small, compact, lightweight
Quick response times (faster for CO2)
Short warm-up time
Convenience (no complicated calibrations)
Lack of interference from other gases (argon, low conc NO)
Detecting anaesthetic agent breakdown (desflurane to CO will show as
wrong or mixed agent)
Disadvantages of Infrared Analysis:
• O2 and N2 cannot be measured
• Gas interference :
 O2 causes broadening of CO2 spectrum l/t lower readings
 N2O absorption spectrum overlaps with CO2 (l/t higher vlues): so need
either automatic or manual correction for N2O
 He l/t underestimation of CO2
• Other substances l/t inaccuracies (ethanol, methanol, diethyl ether,
methane): give high volatile agent reading, polychromatic less affected
• Interference from Water vapors: Absorb infrared rays (l/t lower values)
• Slow response time (with rapid resp rates)
• Difficulty in adding new volatile agents
Chemical Carbon Dioxide Detection
• Consists of a pH-sensitive indicator
• Principle: When the indicator is exposed to carbonic acid that is formed
as a product of the reaction between CO2 and water it becomes more
acidic and changes color
Technology:
Hygroscopic:CO2 detector contains hygroscopic filter paper that has
colorl ess base and indicator that changes color as a function of ph.
Hydrophobic;show s acolor change from blue to green to yellow;
Uses:
• For confirming tracheal intubation when a capnometer is not available
• Disposable so it may be useful to confirm tracheal intubation in patients
with respiratory diseases (e.g.SARS)
Advantages:
• Easy to use, small size, low cost
• Not affected by N2O, volatile anaesthetics
• Offers minimal resistance to flow
• CO doesn’t interfere
Disadvantages:
• Recommended to wait six breaths before making a determination
• False-negative results may be seen with very low tidal volumes
• Drugsused in the trachea or gastric contents can cause irreversible
damage to the device
• False-positive results can occur if CO2 in the stomach
• Semiquantitative, cannot give accurate measurement of CO2 (So use
limited to check endotracheal intubation)
CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF CAPNOMETRY.
• Confirm endotracheal intubation.
• Assess adequacy of cardiac output.
• Detect circuit disconnection.
 CAPNOGRAPHY.
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Examined for
Height,frequency(R.R),
Rhythm.
Baseline(Normally zero)
Shape(top hat or sine wave )
Capnography cont…
• Phase 1: E (Inspiratory baseline)
• Phase 2: B to C (Expiratory upstroke), S shaped- represents transition
from dead space to alveolar space
• Phase 3: C to D (all from alveoli)
• End of Phase 3 (Point D): End tidal point (Max CO2)
• Alpha : Angle b/w Phase 2 & 3 (normal 100-110 degree)
• Beta: B/w end of phase 3 & Descending limb (90 degree)
 The slope of phase 3 (C to D) increases:
 With PEEP
 Airway obstruction
 V/Q mismatch
 And so angle Alpha also increases
 And angle Beta decreases
 Angle Beta increases with:
 Rebreathing
 Prolonged response time
Dec ET CO2:
• Impaired peripheral circulation
• Pulmnonary embolism
• Increased patient dead space
• Hyperventilation-airway obstruction
• Hypothermia
• Use of muscle relaxants
• Leak in sampling line
• Leak around ET
• Heavy sedation
Increased ET CO2:
• Absorption of CO2 from peritoneal cavity
• Injection of NaHCO3
• Convulsions
• Hyperthermia
• Pain, anxiety, shivering
• Increased muscle tone (reversal of muscle relaxation)
• Hypoventilation
• Upper airway obstruction
• Rebreathing
• Increased circulation from tissues to lung (release of tourniquet)
UNUSUAL WAVEFORM;
• Leak in sample line: Brief peak at the end of plateau
• Partially paralysed (making intermittent resp effort) :Curare cleft
• Cardiogenic occilations:
Seen in pediatric pts
(d/t heart beating against
Lungs)
UNUSUAL WAVEFORM…
• Hyperventilation or inc in dead
space ventillation:
Low end-tidal co2 with a good
alveolar plateau.
• Hypoventilation or inc co2
delivery to lungs.
Elevated end –tidal co2 with
good Alveolar pleateau.
UNUSUAL WAVEFORM….
• COPD,Bronchospasm,
Upper airway
obstruction- Expiration
is progessively
prolonged
• Extubation,Esophageal
intubation,complete
breathing system
disconnection-Sudden
drop of ETCO2 to ZERO
OXYGEN ANALYSIS
Oxygen:
Standard requirements:
• Oxygen readings shall be within ±2.5% of the actual level
• The high and low oxygen level alarms must be at least medium
priority, oxygen concentration below 18% (should be high priority
alarm)
• It shall not be possible to set the low oxygen alarm limit below 18%
Technology used:
• Paramagnetic Technology
• Electrochemical Technology
Paramagnetic Oxygen Analysis:
• Paramagnetic substances: Substances which locate themselves in the
strongest portion of the field when introduced into a magnetic field
• Oxygen is the only paramagnetic gas.
• Principle: When a gas that contains oxygen is passed through a magnetic
field, the gas will expand and contract, causing a pressure wave that is
proportional to the oxygen partial pressure.
• Reference and sample gases are pumped through the analyser
• Pressure difference is detected by the transducer and converted into an
electrical signal that is displayed as oxygen partial pressure or volumes
percent.
Eletrochemical Oxygen Analysis:
• Consists of a sensor, analyzer box, display, and alarms
• Sensor is placed in the inspiratory limb
• Gel membrane (nonpermeable to ions, proteins, but is permeable to
oxygen)
• Technology:
Galvanic cell/ fuel cell
Polarographic electrode
Galvanic cell:(Fuel cell,Microfuel cell)
• Principle: Oxygen diffuses through the sensor membrane and electrolyte
to the cathode, where it is reduced, causing a current to flow
• Current generated is proportional to the partial pressure of oxygen in the
gas
Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OHAnode: 4OH- + 2Pb → 2PbO + 2H2O + 4e• Cathode is the sensing electrode, anode is usually consumed
• The chemical reaction is temperature dependent
Polarographic Electrode:(Clark electrode)
• Components: anode, a cathode, an electrolyte, and a gas-permeable
membrane
• Needs power source for inducing a potential between the anode and the
cathode
• Same principle as galvanic cell
Advantages:
• Easy to use, low cost, compact
• No effect from argon
Disadvantages:Maintenance:more then Galvanic cell monitor.
• Slow response time.
• Calibration:each day and every 8 hours.
Applications of Oxygen Analysis:
Detecting Hypoxic or Hyperoxic Mixtures:
• Oxygen monitor provides earlier warning of inadequate oxygen than
pulse oximetry
Detecting Disconnections and Leaks:
• However not dependable
Detecting Hypoventilation:
• Normal: Difference b/w inspired and expired oxygen is 4% to 5%
End tidal Oxygen Measurement:
• Assess pt’s oxygen consumption (Malignant hyperthermia)
• To detect air embolism (inc ET O2)
• Nitrous Oxide:
Measurement technique:
• Infrared Analysis
• Significance:
Assess flowmeter function
Nitrogen:
• Previously measured using Raman spectroscopy or mass spectrometry
• Now no longer available
• Significance:
• Verifying adequate denitrogenation before induction (imp for
pediatric pt, in lung ds, dec FRC)
• Detecting air emboli (Inc ET N2)
Thank You