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Biology 1st Trimester Final Exam Review Chapter 7 – Cell Structure and Function 7.1 – Life Is Cellular The cell theory states that 1) All living things are made up of cells, 2) Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things, and 3) New cells are produced from existing cells. Most microscopes use lenses to magnify the image of an object by focusing light or electrons. Prokaryotic cells do not separate their genetic material within a nucleus. In eukaryotic cells, the nucleus separates the genetic material from the rest of the cell. 7.1 Vocabulary Cell Cell Theory Cell Membrane Nucleus Eukaryote Prokaryote 7.2 – Cell Structure The nucleus contains nearly all of the cell’s DNA and, with it, the coded instructions for making proteins and other important molecules. Vacuoles store materials like water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates. Lysosomes break down large molecules into smaller ones that can be used by the cell. They are also involved in breaking down organelles that have outlived their usefulness. The cytoskeleton helps the cell maintain its shape and is also involved in movement. Proteins are assembled on ribosomes. Proteins made on the rough ER include those that will be released from the cell as well as many membrane proteins and proteins destined for specialized locations within the cell. The Golgi apparatus then modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and other materials for storage in the cell or release outside the cell. Chloroplasts capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into food that contains chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis. Mitochondria convert the chemical energy stored in food into compounds that are more convenient for the cell to use. The cell membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell and also protects and supports the cell. 7.2 Vocabulary Cytoplasm Organelle Vacuole Lysosome Cytoskeleton Centriole Ribosome Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi apparatus Chloroplast Mitochondrion Cell Wall Lipid Bilayer Selectively Permeable 7.3 – Cell Transport Passive transport (including diffusion and osmosis) is the movement of materials across the cell membrane without cellular energy. The movement of materials against a concentration difference is known as active transport. Active transport requires energy. Biology 1st Trimester Final Exam Review 7.3 Vocabulary Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion Osmosis Isotonic Hypertonic Hypotonic Osmotic Pressure 7.4 – Homeostasis and Cells To maintain homeostasis, unicellular organisms grow, respond to the environment, transform energy, and reproduce. The cells of multicellular organisms become specialized for particular tasks and communicate with one another to maintain homeostasis. 7.4 Vocabulary Homeostasis Tissue Organ Organ System Receptor Chapter 8 – Photosynthesis 8.1 – Energy and Life ATP can easily release and store energy by breaking and re-forming the bonds between its phosphate groups. This characteristic of ATP makes it exceptionally useful as a basic energy source for all cells. In the process of photosynthesis, plants convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy stored in the bonds of carbohydrates 8.1 Vocabulary Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) Heterotroph Autotroph Photosynthesis 8.2 – Photosynthesis: An Overview Photosynthetic organisms capture energy from sunlight with pigments. An electron carrier is a compound that can accept a pair of high-energy electrons and transfer them, along with most of their energy, to another molecule. Photosynthesis uses the energy of sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide (reactants) into high-energy sugars and oxygen (products). 8.2 Vocabulary Pigment Chlorophyll Thylakoid Stroma NADP+ Light-Dependent Reactions Light-Independent Reactions 8.3 – The Process of Photosynthesis The light-dependent reactions use energy from sunlight to produce oxygen and convert ADP and NADP+ into the energy carriers ATP and NADPH Biology 1st Trimester Final Exam Review During the light-independent reactions, ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions are used to produce high-energy sugars. Among the most important factors that affect photosynthesis are temperature, light intensity, and the availability of water. 8.3 Vocabulary Photosystem Electron Transport Chain ATP Synthase Calvin Cycle Chapter 9 – Cellular Respiration and Fermentation 9.1 – Cellular Respiration: An Overview Organisms get the energy they need from food. Cellular respiration is the process that releases energy from food in the presence of oxygen. Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and cellular respiration puts it back. Photosynthesis releases oxygen into the atmosphere, and cellular respiration uses that oxygen to release energy from food. 9.1 Vocabulary Cellular Respiration Aerobic Anaerobic 9.2 – The Process of Cellular Respiration During glycolysis, 1 molecule of glucose, a 6-carbon compound, is transformed into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid, a 3-carbon compound. During the Krebs cycle, pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of energy-extracting reactions. The electron transport chain uses the high-energy electrons from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle to convert ADP to ATP Together, glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain release about 36 molecules of ATP per molecule of glucose. 9.2 Vocabulary Glycolysis NAD+ Krebs cycle Matrix 9.3 – Fermentation In the absence of oxygen, fermentation releases energy from food molecules by producing ATP. For short, quick burst of energy, the body uses ATP already in muscles as well as ATP made by lactic acid fermentation. For exercise longer than about 90 seconds, cellular respiration is the only way to continue generating a supply of ATP 9.3 Vocabulary Fermentation Biology 1st Trimester Final Exam Review Chapter 10 – Cell Growth and Division 10.1 – Cell Growth, Division, and Reproduction The larger a cell becomes, the more demands the cell places on its DNA. In addition, a larger cell is less efficient in moving nutrients and waste materials across the cell membrane. Asexual reproduction is the production of genetically identical offspring from a single parent. Offspring produced by sexual reproduction inherit some of their genetic information from each parent. 10.1 Vocabulary Cell Division Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction 10.2 – The Process of Cell Division Chromosomes make it possible to separate DNA precisely during cell division. During the cell cycle, a cell grows, prepares for division, and divides to form two daughter cells. During prophase, the genetic material inside the nucleus condenses. During metaphase, the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell. During anaphase, the chromosomes separate and move along the spindle fibers to opposite ends of the cell. During telophase, the chromosomes, which were distinct and condensed, begin to spread out into a tangle of chromatin. Cytokinesis completes the process of cell division – it splits one cell into two 10.2 Vocabulary Chromosome Chromatin Cell cycle] Interphase Mitosis Cytokinesis Prophase Centromere Chromatid Centriole Metaphase Anaphase Telophase 10.3 – Regulating the Cell Cycle The cell cycle is controlled by regulatory proteins both inside and outside the cell. Cancer cells do not respond to the signals that regulate the growth of most cells. As a result, the cells divide uncontrollably. 10.3 Vocabulary Cyclin Growth Factor Apoptosis Cancer Tumor 10.4 – Cell Differentiation During the development of an organism, cells differentiate into many types of cells. The unspecialized cells from which differentiated cells develop are known as stem cells. Biology 1st Trimester Final Exam Review Stem cells offer the potential benefit of using undifferentiated cells to repair or replace badly damaged cells and tissues. Human embryonic stem cell research is controversial because the arguments for it and against it both involve ethical issues of life and death. 10.4 Vocabulary Embryo Differentiation Totipotent Blastocyst Pluripotent Stem Cell Multipotent