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Chapter 23
Anatomic Descriptors and
Fundamental Body Structure
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Anatomical Position
• A body is said to be in the anatomical position
when the patient is standing erect, with the
arms down at the sides, and the palms of the
hands facing forward
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Appropriate Terminology for
Anatomical Directions
• To describe exact
location when charting,
the body is divided by
imaginary lines
• One line divides the
body into right and left
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Terms
• Medial
– Toward the midline
• Lateral
– Away from the midline
• Proximal
– Nearest the point of attachment
• Distal
– Farthest from the point of attachment
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Appropriate Terminology for
Anatomical Directions
• Another line divides the
body into upper and
lower halves
• Finally, a line divides the
body into front and
back
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Terms
• Anterior
• Inferior
– Toward the front
• Frontal
– Toward the front
• Ventral
– Toward the front or belly
side
– Below the transverse plane
• Cranial
– Toward the head
• Caudal
– Toward the tail or feet
• Posterior
• Superior
– Above the transverse
plane
– Toward the back
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Body Cavities and Major Organs
• The body is divided into two main cavities:
1.Anterior or ventral
•
Cavity toward the belly side that contains the head,
chest, and major abdominal organs
2.Posterior or dorsal
•
Cavity toward the back that contains the brain and
spinal cord
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Body Cavities
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The Diaphragm
• Diaphragm
– A large dome-shaped muscle that separates the
thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity
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The Organs of the Abdomen
• The abdomen contains the:
– Stomach
(neutral pH of 7.0,below7.0 is acidic)
– Small intestine
– Most of the large intestine
– Liver
– Spleen
– Pancreas
– Gallbladder
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The Regions of the Abdomen
• Because of its size,
the abdomen is first
divided into four
areas called
quadrants.
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The Regions of the Abdomen
• The abdomen is then
divided into 9 regions for
purposes of identification
and reference.
• Central areas include the
Epigastric, Umbilical, and
Hypogastric.
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The Basic Characteristics of a Cell
• The function of cells, tissues, and organs of the body is called
physiology.
• The cell is the basic building block of the human body:
– Cells need nutrients and oxygen to survive.
– Cells perform specific functions.
– Cells produce heat and energy.
– Cells can give off waste products.
– Some cells can reproduce themselves.
– Cell membrane consists of protein and fat.
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The Basic Characteristics of a Cell
• Organelles are minute bodies within the cytoplasm:
–
–
–
–
Nucleus

Endoplasmic reticulum
Mitochondria

Golgi apparatus
Ribosomes

Lysosomes
Centriole(know what this does)
• Some organelles physically separate the chemical
reactions that are not compatible.
• Organelles also control the time when reactions
take place.
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The Basic Characteristics of a Cell
• Chromosomes
– Located within the nucleus, each human has 23
pairs of chromosomes that store the hereditary
material passed from one generation to the next
– 22 pairs are identical.
– The 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes:
• XY = male
• XX = female
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The Basic Characteristics of a Cell
• Cytoplasm
– Fluid that makes up the cell
• Cell membrane
– Separates the cell from the surrounding
environment
• Cytoplasm
– Semisolid fluid within the membrane where
chemical reactions, such as respiration, occur
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What Happens When Mutations Occur
• DNA that is lost, rearranged, or paired in error
results in a change in the genetic code called a
mutation.
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Six Ways Molecules Pass
Through Cell Membranes
1. Diffusion
– Gas, solids, or liquids are distributed evenly through a
medium.
2. Osmosis
– Diffusion of water or another solvent through a selectively
permeable membrane
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Six Ways Molecules Pass
Through Cell Membranes
3. Filtration
– Movement of solutes and water across a
semipermeable membrane
– Filtration occurs as a result of force such
as gravity or blood pressure.
4. Active transport
– Molecules move across a membrane from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration.
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Six Ways Molecules Pass
Through Cell Membranes
5.Phagocytosis (Cell eating)
– White blood cells become phagocytes and engulf
bacteria, cell fragments, or damaged cells.
6.Pinocytosis
– Cells engulf large molecules of liquid materials;
cell drinking
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The Patterns of Inheritance and
How They Affect a Trait
• A trait is a recognizable result of the effect of a
gene or a group of genes
– 3 patterns of inheritance can produce these traits
1. Dominant genes: produce the trait
2. Recessive genes: produce the trait if both parents
have the same mutation
3. X-linked: traits that are sex linked
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Genetic and Congenital Disorders
• These disorders can result from improper sex
cell division at the time of fertilization, from
the inheritance of altered genes, or as the
result of environmental factors or poisons.
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Cleft Lip and Cleft Palate
• Cleft lip
– A structural defect is present in the upper lip
caused by failure of the soft or bony tissues to
unite during the 8th to 12th week of gestation.
• Cleft palate
– A structural defect is present in the roof of the
mouth caused by failure of the soft or bony
tissues to unite during the 8th to 12th week of
gestation.
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Color Vision Deficiency
• Inaccurately called “colorblindness” – most
people see some colors.
• The most common problem is an inability to
distinguish between red and green.
• There is no treatment to correct the problem;
people must learn to compensate.
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Cystic Fibrosis
• Affects multiple systems; a generalized
dysfunction of the exocrine glands.
• 30,000 people affected in the U.S.; median
age of survival is 37 years.
• All states require infant screening to identify
cystic fibrosis before leaving the hospital.
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Down Syndrome
• A genetic syndrome caused by improper cell division
• Occurs in about 1 in every 1,000 births,
depending on the mother’s age
• The result is an extra chromosome 21.
• Down syndrome has several physical
characteristics, e.g., slanting eyes,
large tongue, pug nose, and a small head.
• Mental retardation occurs in all
• cases and there is some degree of growth restriction.
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Dwarfism
• Condition that results in an abnormally
undersized person.
• About 200 conditions that result in dwarfism;
achondroplastic dwarfism accounts for 70% of
cases.
• Some common causes of dwarfism are
endocrine dysfunction, deficiency disease and
renal insufficiency.
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Klinefelter’s Syndrome
• Sex-linked disorder where there is one or
more extra X chromosomes; affects 1 in every
600 males.
• At puberty, the penis and testicles fail to
mature and there is little body hair.
• Breasts may enlarge and long legs with a
short, obese trunk are noted.
• Mental retardation occurs.
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Spina Bifida
• A structural malformation of the spine
• The posterior portion of the spinal tissues fails
to close during the first 3 months of
pregnancy.
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Talipes
• A structural deformity of one or both feet
• Commonly called clubfoot
• There may be varying degrees of inward,
outward, downward, or upward turning of one
or both feet.
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Turner’s Syndrome
• Sex-linked defect that affects about 1 in every
10,000 females.
• Only 45 chromosomes are present because
the sex cells failed to divide correctly.
• Ovaries fail to develop.
• The chest is wide and there is poor breast
development and underdevelopment of the
genitalia.
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Body System Interaction
• Because the body is so dependent on multiple
systems to function, when diseases and
disorders develop, often multiple systems are
involved.
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Discoveries in Genetics
• The Human Genome Project identified a 3 billion
letter code of human DNA, which is the chemical
sequence containing the basic information for
building and running a human body.
• This sequence determines every human
characteristic from eye color to vulnerability to
disease.
• Currently Huntington’s disease can be determined
for a fetus with genetic engineering.
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Genetic Techniques
•
•
•
•
•
•
Polymerase Chain Reaction
DNA Fingerprinting
Genetic Counseling
Gene Therapy
Genetic Engineering
Stem Cell Research
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Cell to Tissue Progression
• When cells of the same type group together
for a common purpose, they form a tissue.
• Tissue has four main classifications and is 60%
to 99% water.
• Edema can cause affected tissue to appear
puffy.
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Four Main Types of Body Tissue
1. Epithelial tissue
– Forms the body’s glands, covers the
surface of the body, and lines the
body cavities, and provides specific
secretions.
2. Connective tissue
– Connects tissues together to
form the organs and body parts
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Four Main Types of Body Tissue
3.Nerve tissue
– The basic structural unit of this tissue is the
neuron, which serves as the body’s
communication network.
– These neurons are made up of a nerve cell body
and fibers that resemble tree branches to bring
impulses toward the cell and carry impulses away
from the cell.
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Four Main Types of Body Tissue
– Sensory neurons in the skin or sensory organs
send impulses to the brain and spinal cord.
– Interneurons carry impulses to another neuron.
– Motor neurons receive an impulse and send a
message, which causes a reaction.
– Some neurons cannot be regenerated if damaged
or destroyed.
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Four Main Types of Body Tissue
4. Muscle tissue
– Designed to contract on stimulation
– Involuntary action occurs without control or conscious
awareness, such as the heartbeat and respirations.
– Tissues controlled at will by brain impulses are called
voluntary muscle tissue.
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Body Organs
• The organs are made up of two or more types of
tissues working together to perform a specific body
function.
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Body Systems
• The human body is made up of 10 body
systems and the organs of each are discussed
in the unit that relates to that particular body
system.
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The Body Systems
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The 10 Body Systems
Integumentary
– Skin
Muscular system
– Muscles
Skeletal system
– Bones and joints
Nervous system
– Brain and spine
Endocrine system
– 9 glands
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The 10 Body Systems
Circulatory system
–
Heart and blood vessels
Respiratory system
–
Mouth, nose, and lungs
Digestive system
–
Intestines
Urinary system
–
Bladder, kidneys, ureters, and urethra
Reproductive
–
Sex organs
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More Information
• Cartilage is not found in the wrist.
• Protein in not a component of lymph.
• Nerves found outside the brain and spinal
cord are called peripheral nerves.
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