Download Experience versus biological competence in cognitive ability

Running head: EXPERIENCE
COGTITIVE ABILITY
VERSUS
BIOLOGICAL
COMPETENCE
IN
Experience versus biological competence in cognitive ability
There was long existing controversy; some people contended that cognitive ability
depends on our biological aspects while other groups of people say that living experiences
mainly influence the cognitive ability. However, dichotomy between the two does not seem
to be reasonably explain the g. So in which way the g is well explained? And what is the
intelligence? In the following parts of essay, the history of development of the definition of
the intelligence, different models of intelligence and the implications of those changing
meanings of intelligence in education will be discussed. In the last place, the relationship
between properties of brain and intelligence, between experience and intelligence, and the
experiences and properties of brain will also be explained.
Development of the term aptitude
Aptitude is one thing that stands among the controversy between that person’s ability is
mainly influenced by the experiences and that other experts mention brains determine the
extent how smart the children, rather than life experience. Aptitude is considered as a
characteristic that can predict individual’s success in the future. People are usually confused
by the term, aptitude, with other seemingly the same word; at the very first time, people
notice the existence of the aptitude, aptitude is not the synonymous with intelligence in their
minds. So, what is the aptitude? Actually, aptitude was not defined immediately; aptitude has
its history of development until the meaning of intelligence becomes equal to the one what
we know today, and in this development it has been evolving step by step.
Broadly, the concept of the aptitude should be discussed from the very early ancient time.
In the early 2357 BC in the china, ancient Chinese used competitive tests, such as intelligence
1
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
and educational achievement tests, for selecting cognitively talented persons, named civil
servants at that time. Also, among the Greeks in the ancient Greece, many great scholars
applied different kinds of methods of teaching to instruct students who had different
aptitudes.
During the debate about clarifying the aptitude, gradually, people paid attention to the
definition of aptitude in dictionary usages. The original definition of the aptitude in dictionary
referred to fitness, inclination, tendency, propensity or suitability to perform well in a brand
new situation in the future. According to Snow (2002), the historical concept of aptitude was
really similar with the term readiness, whose definition in the dictionary was “Preparedness
to respond a state or condition of the person that makes it possible to engage in a given
learning activity”. However, this definition does not equal with the intelligence. The
intelligence was believed as an organization of aptitudes for learning and problem solving,
particularly in situations involving novel or complex, meaningful information and incomplete
instruction about it. Likewise, Binet’s (1909) definition of aptitude or intelligence was
deviated from formerly used concept of aptitude. He defined intelligence as performance on
educational tasks, which might bring predictable power for achieving future success in
education. After Binet’s new view on aptitude, subsequent theories on aptitudes were similar
with Binet’s, though the focuses of theory were a little bit different. For example, the Gf-Gc
theory of Cattell highly related with the education. Gf, also named fluid intelligence, referred
to an ability to realize and analyze the relationships between stimulus and to comprehend the
implications. Meanwhile, the Gc, called crystallized intelligence, meant accumulated
knowledge which acquired via life experiences, and which is independent of central neural
2
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
systems. The combination of Gc and Gf created a bi-dimensional structure of intelligence,
which emphasized on the importance of education. Not only that, the three-stratum theory by
Carroll and Horn’s theory combined with the Gf-Gc theory; CHC theory was the combination
of the three. The CHC was the most validated theory due to its thoughtful consideration in
many aspects. The first stratum consisted of over 70 elements. Second stratum included nine
broad groups of factors, such as Gf, Gc and so on. Finally, the general ability was alone in the
third stratum. Those elements in three stratums had critical relationships with educational
tasks, whose focus was different with former focus of aptitude. Because more complicated
and hence more correctly predict future performance in education, the hierarchical structure
of general intelligence replaced with one-dimensional intelligence, the aptitude.
The influence of experiences to intelligence
In terms of experiences that influence the intelligence, this is the most important part in
the essay. In spite of the other factor, brains, also is significant part in relation to intelligence,
the experiences are something we frequently face in daily life and could maximize
intelligence. Intelligence is plastic, rather than fixed as those who insisted the brain already
made the intelligence fixed after maturation. Through various kinds of experiences, the
intelligence will be changed, increased or decreased, with accumulated experiences. In the
following parts, with prenatal experience, family experience, school experience, job
experience, experience in old age, and nutrients and toxins, the significance of experiences
will be discussed in details.
Parental experience
First, the prenatal experience influences the development of intelligence. According to
3
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
results of a study of 40-week pregnancy, newborns showed extremely different intelligence
when they exposed to between a nutritive environments and toxin environments. That is,
prenatal experience could be affected by toxins, which might lead to trauma in subsequent
life. Maternal exposure to the sedative Phenobarbital might diminish 7 scores in IQ tests.
Environmental contaminants also had function in decreasing IQ.
Family Experience
Without any doubt, family is one of the biggest factors that influence the children.
Something taught by parents and happened at home take the largest parts of children before
they enroll into schools. Even after they are students at schools, the influence of parents is not
negligible. There are also several aspects that contribute to the growth.
The home environment impacts the cognitive development of children. An experiment
showed that social economic status influenced children’s intelligence. According to Martinez
(2000), “The values, expectations, child rearing practices, and other qualities of family life
associated with social economic status may impact cognitive outcomes directly” (page 8). For
example, the parents might talk with students in social linguistic patterns, which patterns
relate to some social aspects of languages. Since those parents received higher educations and
occupations, their knowledge about society would be broad and profound. Also, with that
knowledge, children could be highly encouraged to think in social context, and hence more
familiar with social patterns than those in lower social status do. And it is highly possible that
those parents are genetically intelligent, which also lead to born smarter children. Not only
the social linguistic patterns, daily interactions and parents’ education quality, play a
significant role in promoting the development of the intelligence. What’s more, while other
4
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
parents just mimic the words of teachers, parents in higher social status are able to teach
children in various ways according to the same theory of teachers. The obvious difference in
teaching produces large gaps between children in two families. One outstanding study that
proved the power of social status was the adoption of the twins. Children who adopted into
higher status families tended to have a higher IQ with the time passes, even though formerly
their IQs were lower than their non-adopted siblings.
School experience
What the school experience provides to students is the educational treatments with which
students improve their intelligence. Because the studies in the schools generally aim at
improving students’ intelligence, ordinary experience of schooling will reasonably help
students in increasing IQ. As the Ceci (1990) noticed that there are eight evidences to support
his opinion that regular education has visible effects on intelligence development. The first
one is strong and positive relationship between G measures and years of schooling completed.
Education positively affects the aptitude development. The focus of the education was
accumulating on the side of Gc than Gf and Gv; various courses broadened and deepened
their knowledge. However, at the same time, it was not to saying that there were no effect on
Gf and Gv; though more proofs needed to be presented, scholars still pretty made sure that
the students improved at those two important aspects of aptitude.
The second factor proved by Ceci (1990) was the retardation of students’ G deteriorated
during the summer vacation when they did not study hard. Especially, for students in a lower
social economic status had few chances, the retardation of intelligence was even obvious. The
third one was irregular schooling resulted in increasing deficits in G. Late start of the
5
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
schooling also had several kinds of negative effects on nurturing the G. Obviously, early
determination of the regular education is also a big reason for retardation of the G. What’s
more, the assessment designed to show the school achievement correlates with the
measurement of the G. Additionally, the schooling has more effect on g than the age does.
The last evidence is the overall intelligence increase of human. Throughout widespread effect
of education and enhanced education quality produces this change. The Flynn effect also
partly explains this phenomenon with the other factors, such as genetic and media, although
the controversy about what makes this effect is still going on.
Job experience
The educational value of jobs are varied according to different sorts of jobs. For
example, some jobs that produce commodities may tend to have less value in education than
in symbolic analyst positions. Symbolic analyst positions are full of potentials to expand
cognitive ability, because, rather than mindlessly repeat certain behavior, symbolic analyst
jobs are focusing on analysis, exploration, judgment, independent thought, and initiative for
solving some problems. With those focuses, intelligence can be evoked and practiced. For
example, when a group of people plan to design a course in a school, each people may be
responsible for different parts. For elegantly accomplishing their missions and efficiently
helping the team, they have to use their intelligence to make synergy for the team.
Experience in old age
By getting old, the Gc will be accumulated as people learn and experience lots of things
via life time. So, normally people say seniors have broad knowledge. However, the fluid
intelligence tends to decrease as one gets older.
6
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
However, one thing that shows the intelligence can be shaped by experience is that the
fluid intelligence increases when the appropriate practice is complemented. The combination
of cognitively interesting and challenging environment and physical exercise is able to
produce brain molecule, named neurotrophins, which boost growth of neurons and brain
vascularization. The more the neurotrophins, the more active the brain does. So, the Gf is
increased by the increase of neurotrophins.
What’s more, the new brain neurons can be made into the brain. It’s been commonly
recognized that nothing impedes the loss of the brain neurons. However, new neurons can be
created by environmental stimulation and exercise. Though the connections between certain
activities and brain neurons need more evidences to prove its validity, the possibility seems to
be captivating that human brain is able to renewal neurons by itself.
Nutrients and toxins
Nutrients and toxins have significant effect on changing human intelligence. For example,
the Flynn effect partly can be explained by the nutrients. The increased nutrients were partly
done by advanced supplement of food and nutrients in it. The reason why this opinion is
plausible is that some developing countries in Africa are still lack of food and their IQs are
not as high as those in economically developed countries.
One important element in food, for example, is the Vitamin. In the Britain, there was 9
points IQ difference between those who had intake of multivitamin tablets and those who did
not after 8 months’ trial (2000). Similar experiment and results also had found in California
and New York City. So, how do the properties of the brain effects our intelligence?
Correlation between brain and intelligence
7
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
While there are people who agree the intelligence can be altered by the experience, the
other groups of people say that the intelligence is just part of brain and merely can be
changed by the experience. They think the intelligence is the product of human evolution, so
the intelligence is highly related to organic variables. Those variables include, head size,
brain size, frequency of alpha brain waves, latency and amplitude of evoked brain potentials,
rate of brain glucose metabolism.
The body size is related to the IQ. The correlation, based on a study (1998), is between
+.10 and +.30. Moreover, interestingly, the leg length has more relationship with the IQ than
the upper part of the body (page 146).
In terms of head size and brain size, there are a number of evidences to support these two
are significantly related to intelligence. The magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides
really excellent capture the brain picture of living persons. According to this technology,
many correlates between total brain volume and IQ in healthy persons have been successfully
explored, correlations as high as +.40. What’s more, even though there are controversies, the
brain size differences between sexes also produce differences in intelligence. There are three
possible explanations about that. According to Jensen (1998), first one is sexual dimporphism
in neural circuitry could make female’s brain functioning more efficiently. Secondly, the
spatial visualization ability leads to this difference. Third one is though same amount of
functional neurons in both sexes, the more “packing density” of neurons in female’s brains.
However, those three are just hypothesis (page. 149).
More evidences need to be presented
for proving those hypothesis.
The intelligence is also highly correlated with the cerebral glucose metabolism, which is
8
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
the brain’s main source of energy. The rate of the cerebral glucose metabolism in different
parts of the brains is the indicator of the extent how active is the mental activities. In other
words, this rate and g have a high correlation in the studies of relationship between the two.
For example, a study focused on the glucose metabolic rate (GMR) as a function of the
“mental effort” paid in a task. Researchers organized some high and average IQ students to
solve some easy and difficult problems. As a consequence, there are significant connections
between the mental efforts with the problems. Average and high IQ students have mere
difference of mental efforts in dealing with easy problems, while have obvious difference in
dealing with difficult problems. That means, the higher IQ the students possess, the better
they can resolve difficult problems than those who have relatively lower IQ.
As I have discussed above, the head and brain size, frequency of alpha brain waves,
evoked brain potentials and brain glucose metabolism have significant relationship with the g.
That is true, since there are believable evidences that support their ideas. However, is it true
that only the properties of the brains have correlation with the g? OR is it correct if someone
says the experience is the only factor that influences the intelligence? Of course, these
opinions are incorrect.
Relationship between experiences, biological aspects and intelligence
The three elements are mutually connected. Especially, the relationship between g and
the other two factors are equally important. Though in the different time the importance may
be varied, the functions of the experiences and the biological aspects always affect the
intelligence together. For example, the maturation of the brain mainly increases the
intelligence. Immature brains mean properties of the brains can not function as the adults’
9
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
brains. That is, biologically the brain restricts full abilities from working. So, for the adults
whose brains just are mature after growing up, the maturation of the brains may indicate the
most important promotion in the intelligence. However, in this case, negative experiences can
wholly destroy the significant role of the maturation. For instance, if this adult, unfortunately,
suffers car accident in the life experience, the brain may be damaged by this incident, which
can forever impede the development of the brains. In this easily imaginable example, the
argument can be existed that which element is more significant. However, no argument is
expected from the fact that both of the two factors influence this people so much. Just like
this example, in our life, two elements influence the g, and the two are always connected.
Conclusion
This essay mainly discusses the roles of life experience and biological aspects of persons,
which may influence the intelligence. Before analyzing which one is more important, the
changed definition of intelligence is mentioned from aptitude to multiple-structured
intelligence. Because the intelligence is also related with the education, the reason why the
development of intelligence is important is also analyzed. Then, each function of the two
elements is discussed. Finally, I come to a conclusion that each factor is highly important to
development of the g. The two factors are not only important, but correlated. If children need
a stable development of the IQ, supports from the two aspects are both needed.
10
EXPERIENCE VERSUS BIOLOGICAL COMPETENCE IN COGTITIVE ABILITY
References
Binet, A. (1909). Les idles modernes sur I'enfant. Paris: Flammarion.
Cronbach, L. J. (1957). The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American
psychology, 12, 671-684.
Ceci, S. J. (1990). On intelligence-- more or less : A bio-ecological treatise on intellectual
development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice Hall.
Harrell, R. F, Woodyard, E., & Gates, A. I. (1955). The effect of mothers' diets on the
intelligence of offspring : A study of the influence of vitamin supplementation of the
diets of pregnant and lactating women on the intelligence of their children.
Columbia university Press.
Jensen, A. R. (1998). The g factor. New York, New York.
Martinez, M. E. (2000). Education as cultivating intelligence. Mahwah, New Jersey.
Snow, R. E. (2002). Remaking the concept of aptitude experts. University of Stanford
Press.
Snow, R. E. (1996). Aptitude development and education. Psychology, public policy, and
law, 2(3/4), 536-560.
11