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Mesopotamia
Domestication of animals such as cattle - as well as the domestication of plants - changed people's lives and the
course of human history dramatically. The most significant change was the shift from a nomadic life-style to
settled villages. In order to care for crops and herds of animals, people needed to live in one place. This change
from hunting and gathering to planting and herding occurred independently in many parts of the world. In northern
Mesopotamia, the process occurred over the period 10,000-6000 BC. Here, there was enough rainfall to grow
crops, and the region was also home to wheat, barley, sheep, cattle, goats, and pigs, the wild plants and animals
that eventually were domesticated.
By 5800 BC, people were living in the southern plains of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The land in this region
was exceptionally fertile, but the rainfall was insufficient to grow crops. The rivers were undependable, drying up
in the searing heat of the summer. Irrigation was the solution to these problems. Over time, ditches laced the
fields near the rivers, making the land a maze of artificial waterways.
Cities
For the ancient Mesopotamians, their cities were the centers of life. When they looked back to the beginning of
time, they did not see a Garden of Eden, but rather an ancient site called Eridu, which they believed was the first
city ever to be created. Ancient Mesopotamia is where the world's first cities appeared around 4000 - 3500 BC.
No one knows for sure why urbanization began in Mesopotamia. The development of cities could have occurred due
to environmental conditions. Lack of rainfall might have been the inspiration for people to organize themselves in
a common effort to build canals for the irrigation of farmland. Another reason may have been the need for
protection on the open plain, which could have led people to gather together to create walled enclaves. Whatever
the reasons, this was the first time in history that humankind channeled its energies towards addressing the needs
of a community as a whole.
Government
The Laws of Hammurabi are the longest and best organized of the law collections that survive from ancient
Mesopotamia. King Hammurabi, who ruled from 1792-1750 BC, had the laws inscribed on stone stelae which he
placed in various temples throughout his realm. The stela from which this cast was made stands almost seven-anda-half feet tall. At the top of the stela, King Hammurabi stands before the sun god Shamash, the Mesopotamian
god of justice, who is seated on his throne. Shamash gives Hammurabi the rod and ring, symbols of kingship and
divine justice, thus reinforcing the ancient Mesopotamian belief that laws came from the gods.
Below this scene is the law collection itself, mainly comprised of a compilation of legal verdicts describing specific
offenses and the penalties to be enforced in particular situations. Preceding the law collection is a lengthy
prologue, stressing the gods' appointment of Hammurabi as the ruler of his people. Hammurabi's role was to act as
guardian and protector of the weak and powerless, and to pay care and attention to the specific needs of the
patron deities of the many cities incorporated into his realm. Following the laws is an epilogue describing the king
as the military leader who brings peace to his subjects. It explicitly states that these laws were inscribed on a
stela and publicly displayed in order to testify to Hammurabi's righteous and just rule, to bring consolation to
anyone seeking justice, and to serve as an example for future rulers.
Religion
The ancient Mesopotamians worshipped hundreds of gods, each with his/her own name and sphere of activity.
Every city had its own patron god or goddess, and there were also deities connected with various professions - such
as scribes and builders. But only a few gods - those who controlled major realms of the universe, such as the sky,
the sun, and air - received attention as major deities. Anu was the father of the gods and the god of the sky; Enlil
was the god of the air; Utu was the sun god and the lord of truth and justice; Nanna was the moon god; Inanna was
the goddess of love and war; Ninhursag was the goddess of earth; and Enki was the god of fresh water as well as
the lord of wisdom and magic. While they served and revered the great gods, most people felt little connection
with these distant beings.
Ordinary people depended on a relationship with their own personal god - a kind of guardian angel - who protected
individuals and interceded for them with the great deities.
Social Structure
The Mesopotamian social structure was highly stratified. There were the high class gentry, the middle class and
the lowest class. The government officials, the king, the priests, landowners and the wealthy traders and
merchants formed the upper strata of society.
The middle class consisted of fishermen, farmers, artisans, and potters and scribes or those who were involved in
documenting records in the language prevalent during the period.
The lowest class comprised of slaves, people without land and children as well as prisoners who were captured
after the prolonged wars that took place to wrest control of city states. Slaves were regarded as bounty from wars
and they were brought in and made to work for wealthy merchants and priests.
The Mesopotamia social pyramid, however, had at its top, the priestly class. They were the ones who were the
safe keepers of the gods housed in temples. Priests wielded a lot of clout and they were supposed to be the know
all and be all of religion and interpreted god's commands.
Writing
Writing emerged in many different cultures and in numerous locations throughout the ancient world. It was not the
creation of any one people. However, the Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia are credited with inventing the
earliest form of writing, which appeared ca. 3500 BC. The clay tablets shown here date from around 3200 BC. They
were unearthed by Oriental Institute archaeologists at the site of Tell Asmar in Iraq.
The writings on these tablets are simple pictures, or pictograms, which represent an object or an idea. Because
clay is a difficult material on which to draw lines and curves, the Mesopotamians eventually reduced pictograms
into a series of wedge-shaped signs that they pressed into clay with a reed stylus. This wedge-shaped writing is
called cuneiform.
The invention of writing was the dawn of the information revolution. This great technological advance allowed
news and ideas to be carried to distant places without having to rely on a messenger's memory. Like all inventions,
writing emerged because there was a need for it. In Mesopotamia, it was developed as a record-keeping vehicle
for commercial transactions or administrative procedures. There are also texts that served as "copy books" for the
education of future scribes. Eventually, cuneiform script was used to produce some of the greatest literary works
in recorded history.
Art
Temples were originally built on platforms. During the third millennium B.C., these were made higher and bigger.
Eventually it was decided to build even higher temples on platforms which were stepped. These stepped towers
we call ziggurats. By 2000 B.C. mud-brick ziggurats were being constructed in many Sumerian cities. Later,
ziggurats were constructed in Babylonian and Assyrian cities. No one knows for certain why ziggurats were built or
how they were used. They are part of temple complexes, so they were probably connected with religion.
Extras
The seeder plow, invented by the Mesopotamians, was a major technological achievement. It revolutionized
agriculture by carrying out the tasks of seeding and plowing simultaneously. Seed was dropped down the middle
funnel into the furrow that the plow created. The ancient Mesopotamians believed that the god Enlil created the
seeder plow and that the image of the plow could also be seen in the stars. They discovered that by observing the
movements of celestial bodies they could measure time, which was key for planting crops and for holding religious
festivals. Their astronomical observations still aid today's scientists.
The ancient Mesopotamians were a highly inventive people who created many innovations. They not only invented
the seeder plow, but also developed writing, irrigation and sanitation techniques, the "Pythagorean theorem," the
concept of zero, glass, and the arch, column, and dome. They revolutionized transportation around 3500 BC by
inventing the wheel and were among the first to harness the wind as an energy source by using the sail.
Egypt
Cities
Ancient Egypt never developed any major cities. The reason was that the Nile valley constituted a continuous
inhabitable area, in which few places had any advantages over others, whether in terms of communication or nonagricultural products. The cities that did emerge were wither the result of the need for effective
administration, or the clustering of facilities around an important religious center.The main urban places in
Ancient Egypt throughout the major moments of its history, were Memphis and Thebes. Memphis' rise to
importance came from its being the meeting point between the Nile valley and the Nile delta, with its many
smaller rivers. Hence it was an effective market place which could work well in the control of taxation and
internal security. Memphis evolved as the first capital of Egypt, to which Saqqara and Giza served as
necropolises. Thebes' rise to importance was slower than that of Memphis, and it appears that beyond the need to
form an administrative and religious centre for southern Egypt, there were no distinct advantage to Thebes'
region in comparison with other places. The region around Thebes, was, however, rich in agriculture and wellpopulated. More short-lived as an important city was Akhetaten (now known as Tell el-Amarna), the planned city
of Akhenaten.
Government
Ancient Egyptian Government was dominated by a single man, the Pharaoh. The people believed that the king was
more than a man, however, but that he was a god. This gave him absolute control over the affairs of the Empire
and its people. Ancient Egypt was also a theocracy, controlled by the clergy. The Pharaoh¹s advisors and ministers
were almost always priests, who were considered the only ones worthy and able to carry out the god-king¹s
commands. As in most religious ancient societies, priests had special status above the rest of the citizens, forming
a kind of nobility.The governmental officials included the vizier, or the prime minister, the chief treasurer, the tax
collector, the minister of public works, and the army commander. These officials were directly responsible to the
Pharaoh. The land itself was divided up into provinces called nomes. Each nome had a governor, who was
appointed by the Pharaoh, and responsible to the vizier. Taxes were paid in goods and labor. Citizens were drafted
into the army and forced labor for periods of time to pay what was called a corvée, the labor tax. Slaves,
mercenaries, and draftees were often used in the army. It is believed, however, that Egyptian slaves were not
used to construct sacred monuments, such as the Pyramids. Egyptologists were led to this conclusion by recent
finding of worker burial grounds near such monuments. The workers received proper Egyptian burials, whereas
slaves did not. The majority of Egyptian people were peasants who worked the land along the fertile Nile flood
basin. These people had no voice in their government, and accepted this fact because it was backed by their
religion. This mingling of religion and government is probably what kept Egypt so powerful and centralized during
its high points.
Religion
The ancient Egyptians believed in many different gods and goddesses. Having more than one god is known as
polytheism. Each God with their own role to play in maintaining peace and harmony across the land. Some gods
and goddesses took part in creation, some brought the flood every year, some offered protection, and some took
care of people after they died. Others were either local gods who represented towns, or minor gods who
represented plants or animals. The ancient Egyptians believed that it was important to recognize and worship
these gods and goddesses so that life continued smoothly.
Social Structure
Egyptian society was structured like a pyramid. At the top were the gods, such as RA, Osiris, and Isis. Egyptians
believed that the gods controlled the universe. Therefore, it was important to keep them happy. They could make
the Nile overflow, cause famine, or even bring death. The Egyptians also elevated some human beings to gods.
Their leaders, called PHARAOHS, were believed to be gods in human form. They had absolute power over their
subjects. After pharaohs died, huge stone PYRAMIDS were built as their tombs. Pharaohs were buried in chambers
within the pyramids.
Because the people of Egypt believed that their pharaohs were gods, they entrusted their rulers with many
responsibilities. Protection was at the top of the list. The pharaoh directed the army in case of a foreign threat or
an internal conflict. All laws were enacted at the discretion of the pharaoh. Each farmer paid taxes in the form of
grain, which were stored in the pharaoh's warehouses. This grain was used to feed the people in the event of a
famine.
Writing
Egyptian language in writing was called hieroglyphics. Because of its importance to the culture, this
written and painted language was also an art form for the Egyptians. Hieroglyphics was a system with 24
alphabetic characters. Vowels wouldn’t be written down. Instead they had phonograms and ideograms.
Hieroglyphics were carved or painted. But for everyday purposes, they used a simple cursive form of
hieroglyphics called hieratic. The picture writing, hieroglyphics was used for religious writings and for
inscriptions on monuments. There were about 750 different hieroglyphs. It took as much as twelve years
to learn to write in the Egyptians script. Many artists and scribes started learning at the age of four! They
wrote on papyrus scrolls using colored inks and pens made from the softened ends of reeds.
Art
Egyptians had several kinds of art forms. Mummy cases, or sarcophaguses, were built for the bodies of kings or
important people. They believed that the body went to an afterlife and the sarcophagus was to be a beautiful and
valuable place for the body to rest. The body was wrapped in white bandages then it was put in its own case with
a unique design. But the more significant people were given more than one case, which were piled inside each
other. Another interesting art form was relief art. In relief art, the picture was carved into layers to give a raised
look. In the Old and Middle Kingdom, reliefs were made in soft limestone. During the New Kingdom sandstone was
used. Reliefs showed every kind of activity, from feasting to working, from learning to dancing. Statues were
another common art form Egyptians liked making. Most were of gods, goddesses, pharaohs, and queens. The
statues could be made small or large. Statues were not suppose to copy nature, but they were meant to be
symbols of the people's beliefs. Statues always had to be youthful figures. The paintings and drawings of Egyptian
people look flat and strange, because they were painted in a particular way. Important people were painted larger
than others. Heads were shown from front view. Eyes and the top half of the body were shown from the front, but
arms and legs were shown from the side, so that they were easier to see.
Indus Valley
Cities
One of the cities located in the Indus Valley is Harappa, and a neighboring city 350 miles away, Mohenjo-Daro.
Excavations reveal large, orderly walls of massive brick buildings with high sophisticated sanitation and drainage
systems. The culture itself was very drab and unattractive because the civilization did not focus on gold and large
monuments. Harappa is believed to have gotten its start as a farming village around 3300 BC. Mohenjo-Daro is the
twin city and both formed the hub of the civilization. Since their planning principles were followed without change
at all other sites, these two cities laid the groundwork for the other cities that followed. Both cities were a mile
square with defensive outer walls. The street layout shows an understanding of traffic with rounded corners to
allow turning of carts easily, and dividing the city into 12 blocks. Except for the west-central blocks, the basic unit
of city planning was the individual houses.
In Mohenjo-Daro, thirty-nine skeletons were found in the different streets and houses, and it is surmised that
Aryans invaded and murdered many of the people. A toy that may have been used as a whistle was excavated in
this city. The item is shaped like a bird and made of terra cotta. You blow into the hole to make a whistling sound.
Cube-shaped dice were also discovered in the excavations along with a baby’s rattle, which had little holes in it.
To make the sound of a rattle, small bits of clay were inside. Occasionally, the people did hide valuable ornaments
in pots and bury them under the floors of a house. There have been found silver vessels and gold and silver
ornaments that provided evidence of wealthy merchants or landowners. Excavations also provided stone carvings
of seated male figures that may represent some of the ancestral leaders of communities. There is no evidence that
either priests or kings ruled the cities. Sculptures unearthed show a fillet around the head, and an armband and a
cloak decorated with trefoil patterns that originally were filled with red pigment.
Government
Nobody knows what the government of the Harappan period was like; probably they had a king over each city, as in West
Asia at the same time. Possibly they had some queens, as in Egypt at this time. By about 1500 BC,after the Aryan invasion,
all of the people in India seem to have been divided up into castes. Weknow this from the Rig Veda. Only men from the
highest caste - the Brahmins - could be rulers in the government, or even ministers or clerks in the government. These
men did not allow women to rule either. Most of India continued to be divided into small kingdoms, each with their own
king. Beginning in the 300s BC, however, some of these kings began to form larger empires in India, especially in the
north. During the 300s BC, Chandragupta conquered a lot of northern India and made it into one big empire. The Mauryan
Empire lasted until about 200 BC, but then the small kingdoms of India regained their independence. The same thing
happened again in 319 AD, when Chandragupta II formed the Guptan Empire. And then in 455 the Guptan Empire also
collapsed. After that, the most important kingdom in India was the Chola kingdom, which ruled all of south India and east
India along the coast. Then in the 1100s AD the Abbasids invaded and made northern India part of the Islamic Empire. So
during the medieval period, India went back and forth between being ruled by small kings and being ruled by larger
empires.
Religion
Hinduism developed as first among India's non-indigenous religious systems by the Indo-Aryan people who moved
south through India and displaced the Indus Valley Civilization. Hinduism is based upon three primary texts: the
Vedas (written 1400-1000 B.C.E.), the Upanishads (written 900-500 B.C.E.) and the Mahabharata (400 B.C.E. to 400
C.E.). The most ancient sacred literature of Hinduism is called the Vedas. This collection of hymns, poems, and
ceremonial formulas represented the beliefs of several Aryan tribes. Initially the Vedas were considered so sacred
that they were only transmitted orally from one generation of Brahmans to the next. The passages of the Vedas
were eventually written in Sanskrit near the end of the third century BC, and consist of four collections called the
Rig-Veda, the Sama-Veda, the Yajur-Veda, and the Atharva-Veda. Collectively, these are referred to as the
Samhitas.
Social Structure
The Aryans introduced two dynamic social systems: the Varna system or the caste system, and the ashram system
based upon age. The Varna system has its origins in the conquering Indo-Aryan tribes, who tried to push the
indigenous people or Dravidians into servitude during the latter half of the second millennium B.C.E. and the first
half of the first millennium. Although the Vedas spoke of four varnas: Brahmans, Ksatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras,
the actualization of the Hindu social system provided for only two major classifications: Brahman and nonBrahman. It is from this distinction that a conflict arose between the priestly teachers (Brahmans) and political
leaders/warriors (Ksatriyas). In ancient times, social mobility existed and an individual could move from one Varna
to another, though with some difficulty. By the time the Brahmanas were created in later Vedic age the Varna
system or caste was developed and fully incorporated in the society. There emerged many other occupational
groups apart from the regular four varnas. The progressive expansion of the Aryans by war as well as peace
increased detribalization, intermarriages and interdependence led to the origin of Jati-caste system. In other
words various subgroups within one caste started emerging. Hence at this point Jati or caste had started playing
very important role in the social organization. Rigid forms of pollution and purity came into existence so much so
that a king while dealing with a case was expected to ask the person his caste.
Writing
Sanskrit was considered as "Dev Bhasha", " Devavani "or the language of the Gods by ancient Indians. The word
sanskrita, meaning "refined" or "purified," is the antonym of prakrita, meaning "natural," or "vulgar." It is made up
of the primordial sounds, and is developed systematically to include the natural progressions of sounds as created
in the human mouth. Jawaharlal Nehru has said that Sanskrit is a language amazingly rich, efflorescent, full of
luxuriant growth of all kinds, and yet precise and strictly keeping within the framework of grammar which Panini
laid down two thousand years ago. It spread out, added to its richness, became fuller and more ornate, but always
it stuck to its original roots. The ancient Indians attached a great deal of importance to sound, and hence their
writing, poetry or prose, had a rhythmic and musical quality. Our modern languages of India are children of
Sanskrit, and to it owe most of their vocabulary and their forms of expressions.
Sanskrit (meaning "cultured or refined"), the classical language of Hinduism, is the oldest and the most systematic
language in the world. The vastness and the versatility, and power of expression can be appreciated by the fact
that this language has 65 words to describe various forms of earth, 67 words for water, and over 250 words to
describe rainfall.
The Sanskrit grammarians wished to construct a perfect language, which would belong to no one and thus belong
to all, which would not develop but remain an ideal instrument of communication and culture for all peoples and
all time.
Art
Each era is unique in its distinctive culture. In the same way Indian art forms have continuously evolved over
thousands of years. In ancient India, various art forms like paintings, architecture and sculpture evolved. The
history of art in ancient India begins with prehistoric rock paintings. Such rock paintings can be seen in the
Bhimbetaka paintings, belonging to the prehistoric age. Thereafter, an advanced town planning is seen in Harappa
and Mohenjodaro, with their centrally planned cities indicating a highly developed architecture. Another
remarkable example of sculpture from Harappan civilization comes in the form of the dancing girl from
Mohenjodaro.
The use of symbolic forms in India is as old as the Harappan seals. The fire altars of the Vedic period, with their
astronomical and mathematical significance also play an important role in the evolution of the later temples. It
was followed by a period in the history of Indian art that is important for rock-cut caves and temple architecture.
The Buddhists initiated the rock-cut caves, Hindus and Jains started to imitate them at Badami, Aihole, Ellora,
Salsette, Elephanta, Aurangabad and Mahabalipuram. The rock-cut art has continuously evolved, since the first
rock cut caves, to suit different purposes, social and religious contexts, and regional differences.
Ancient China
Modern humans first came to China from Central Asia or India about 50,000 BC. These were Stone Age people, who lived
in caves with their dogs and wore fur and leather. They hunted and gathered their food. By around 4000 BC, these people
were starting to farm rice and keep sheep and chickens. By about 3000 BC, they were using pottery and living in houses,
and they soon afterward learned from Central Asian people how to use horses to pull wheeled chariots By 2000 BC,
Chinese people had entered the Bronze Age and had begun to use writing. Soon afterwards, about 1800 BC, the Shang
Dynasty conquered most of China and ruled it under one Emperor. From this point on, people measure most Chinese
history in dynasties - one family of related rulers
Cities
Little is known about Ancient Chinese cities other than the fact they were built more like rural farming villages. No
particular layout or forethought. Most cities had no walls or road structure.
Government
Ancient China had monarchy, i.e. government headed by an emperor and a royal family. Chinese rulers also called monarchs based
their government on the Confucian model, which taught that the ruler was a virtuous man who led by example…China like many
other countries at that time was an agriculture based country with the river Yangtze as its lifeline. During the
ancient period the king would be the leader and would be more of a dictator than a king for the people who would
take decisions beneficial to them. He has un-surpassing power in all areas be it economy or governance or
agriculture which was the livelihood of the people. Earliest incident of despotic leadership could probably be
traced back to the Hsia dynasty (2200 – 1750 BC) when the emperor Yao picked Shun as his successor to help his
people who were burdened by the regular floods.
Religion
Confucianism
Confucianism was one of the most important aspects in Chinese life from 100BC to AD1900, influencing
areas like education and the government, and governing personal behaviour and the individual's duty to
society. Confucius was born into a poor deposed noble family during the eastern Zhou dynasty. His moral
system is based on empathy and understanding. It centred around three concepts, namely li or 'ideal
action', yi or 'righteousness', and ren or 'human compassion or empathy'. According to Confucianism, a good
orderly life can only result from a well-disciplined society that stresses on ceremony, duty, morality, and
public service. Confucius taught the value of lead by example, and believed that strong familial loyalty,
ancestor worship, respect for elders, and the family unit form the basis of good government. One of his
sayings, known as the 'Golden Rule', states that “a man should practice what he preaches, but a man should
also preach what he practices”. His beliefs were later spread throughout China by his disciples, and many
people learned from his wise sayings.
Buddhism
Buddhism first flourished in China during the Han Dynasty. Originally a radical form of Hinduism, Buddhism
came to China from India and has since spread to the rest of Asia and beyond. It was founded during 4th
or 5th century BC in Nepal by Siddhartha Gautama, who is more commonly known as Shakyamuni and
acknowledged by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha. Buddhism believes in the purity of mind and action,
and the accumulation of karma by doing good deeds and avoiding bad ones. With sufficient karma, a
practitioner attains a state of nirvana and Buddha-hood – the end of suffering brought by a cyclical
existence.
Taoism
Taoism is the only indigenous set of philosophical teachings and religious practices that originated from
China, and is rooted in old Chinese pantheist and shamanistic beliefs. It was developed by Lao Tze during
the Warring States Period and became an organised religion in the 5th century AD. Its key text is the Tao
Te Ching, originally written by Lao Tze who reflected on a way for humanity to end strife and suffering.
Taoists believe that man should live in harmony with nature through dao, or 'the way', the idea of a grand
cosmic harmony. Taoist beliefs stress self-cultivation, freedom and the search for immortality. Taoism has
since played a dominant role in shaping many aspects of Chinese culture such as art, literature, philosophy
and architecture. Taoism is strongly influenced by Chinese folk religion, and Taoist gods were historical
beings who had displayed exceptional powers during their lifetimes.
Social Structure
In ancient Chinese society, the Fengjian social structure of circa 1046-256 BC gave rise to Confucian or Legalist
scholars’ classification of the Chinese people into four broad categories. From highest to lowest social strata, the
categories were: the shi, or gentry scholars; the nong, or peasant farmers; the gong, artisans and craftsmen; and
the shang, merchants and traders …
Writing
The Chinese writing system is an unique phenomenon in the modern world of alphabet scripts. Instead of a few
dozen letters, it has developed thousands of complex signs or "characters" that represent morphemes and words.
The common consensus is that writing in China evolved from earlier non-linguistic symbolic systems. During the
Late Neolithic period, at the latter half of the 3rd millenum BC, many symbols or "pictograms" started to be
incised on pottery and jades. The idea is not phonetic, symbols represent ideas and words not sounds.
Art
From the earliest Stone Age art to the Ming Dynasty in 1500 AD, Chinese artists took up the same themes over and over
again. They were interested in swirling brushwork lines. They were interested in nature: animals, trees, flowers, rocks,
water. Chinese artists wanted to express the relationship between people and nature.
But there were also big changes in Chinese art, some caused by new ideas within China, and some by new ideas coming
from India, Central Asia, or West Asia. In the Stone Age, Chinese artists were experimenting with pottery. Decorating the
pots, we already find the swirling brushwork that will continue throughout Chinese art. Beginning in the Shang Dynasty,
artists also cast bronze jars in molds with designs of dragons, elephants, and other creatures. During the Chou Dynasty,
Chinese artists also began to make all kinds of lacquered boxes, and to paint landscapes and people on silk cloth.