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Chapter 4
DESIGNING AN ETHICAL
ONLINE STUDY
Janet Salmons, PhD
OBJECTIVES
After reading and reflecting on Chapter 4, you will understand design considerations for:
Knowing the foundations for research ethics found in
ethics theories and codes.
Comprehending the historical events that lead to the
development of ethics codes and policies.
Understanding accepted and contested issues in
Internet Research Ethics.
RESEARCH ETHICS & SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
At its simplest, research
ethics can be defined as the
responsibility of the
researcher toward others,
including society broadly,
other scholars, and most
importantly, those whose
attitudes, behaviors, and
experiences we are studying.
How do we decide
what research
designs and
practices represent
responsible and
ethical behavior?
WHY ARE ETHICS THEORIES IMPORTANT
FOR RESEARCHERS?
Each of us needs a moral
compass that helps us determine
an ethical path in life … and in
research. Ethics theories help us
understand diverse ways of
approaching a dilemma. They
provide us with language we can
use to explain our choices.
A HIGH-LEVEL LOOK AT FOUR ETHICAL
THEORIES & RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS
Ethical Theory
Deontology: The priority for ethical behavior
is in adhering to principles and duties, based
on the premise that some choices are morally
wrong, no matter how good the
consequences (Baggini & Fosi, 2007).
Consequentialism: This view holds that
whether an act is morally right depends
primarily on the consequences of the act, the
motive behind the act, or a general rule
requiring such acts (Sinnott-Armstrong,
2011).
Implications for Researchers
Researchers should follow the rules
where codes are set by governing
bodies and/or institutions. Individuals
are respected, not seen merely as a
means to an end.
If the results of the research are
positive and beneficial, then taking a
flexible approach to applying
established guidelines or principles
used to achieve them is ethically
acceptable.
A HIGH-LEVEL LOOK AT FOUR ETHICAL
THEORIES & RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS
Ethical Theory
Implications for Researchers
Virtue Ethics: Ideal virtues, or moral
character, are the guiding force for ethical
decisions (Crisp, 2010).
The researcher is responsible for his or
her own ethical decisions and the
researcher should rely on ideal virtues
and a personal moral compass.
Ethics of Care: Ethics of care focuses on
relationships and takes the view that if we
really care about human beings in terms of
moral theory, we should apply more
principles in our moral decisions (Oruc &
Sarikaya, 2011).
Researchers prioritize care and
compassion over rules, and put
participants’ preferences above their
own, acknowledging that the other
may construct reality in a different
way from oneself.
ETHICS CODES
FROM PROFESSIONAL ASSOCIATIONS
Guidelines from professional
associations aim to create baseline
assumptions about what is
expected of researchers in the
society’s disciplines in order to
maintain the integrity and
credibility of the field as a whole.
Some guidelines focus on ethics in
professional behaviors, while others
focus specifically on research ethics.
Look at the ethics codes for
associations in your field or
discipline. What do they say
about research ethics?
What do they say about
online research or use of
online data? What are your
unanswered questions?
PHRONESIS:
DEVELOPING PRACTICAL WISDOM
‘Phronesis is the ability to evaluate
circumstances so that one can work out what
should be done in a particular situation.
Phronesis relates to working out how to act
suitably in the face of ambiguity without preset
formulae or highly detailed plans of action. In
the face of contingency, phronesis combines
knowledge, judgement, understanding, and
intuition in appropriate ways in order to act
“aptly” in a particular circumstance’ (Macklin &
Whiteford, 2012, p. 92)
How do we cultivate
the practical wisdom
needed to develop
an ethical approach
appropriate to the
study … given
unknown
contingencies?
PHRONESIS:
BRIDGING ETHICAL THEORIES
For researchers working in an academic environment
or under the aegis of a funded project,
consequentialism is not a realistic ethics theory to
guide their decisions. There are typically some rules
or regulations which must be followed, regardless of
how beneficial the potential research outcome may
be.
Deontological theories, together with virtue ethics
and ethics of care, can provide some guidance to
researchers. Do you agree? Why or why not?
ETHICS AND THE
QUALITATIVE eRESEARCH FRAMEWORK
Ethics is central to every stage of the
research process. Chapter 4 presents
ethics theories and codes. Chapter 5
will focus on applying these concepts.
REFERENCES
 Baggini, J. & Fosi, P. (2007) The ethics toolkit: A compendium of ethical concepts and
methods. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
 Crisp, R. (2010) Virtue ethics and virtue epistemology. Metaphilosophy, 41(1/2), 22–40. doi:
10.1111/j.1467-9973.2009.01621.x
 Macklin, R. & Whiteford, G. (2012) Phronesis as professional knowledge : Practical wisdom
in the professions. In A. Pittman & E. A. Kinsella (eds.), Phronesis as professional knowledge
: Practical wisdom in the professions. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
 Oruc, I. & Sarikaya, M. (2011) Normative stakeholder theory in relation to ethics of care.
Social Responsibility Journal, 7(3), 381-392. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/17471111111154527
 Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2011) Consequentialism. In E.N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford, CA: Stanford University.