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Shakarim State University of Semey
LECTURE 4:
CELL
INCLUSIONS.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
OF THE CELL
Sapakhova Zagipa Beisenovna, PhD
Movement
organelles, cell
inclusions
Cytoskeleton of the cell
Structure :
 System of micro tubes and
microfilaments, permeating to
the all cytoplasm.
 Microtubes and
microfilaments – these are
complex of the protein
molecules.
 Cytoskeleton elastic, can be
longer and shorter.
Cytoskeleton of the cell
Function:
 Support (cell skeleton).
 Helps to movement of the
cell structure.
 Helps change of the form of
the cell and different
movement.
Cell center
V. Fleming
German cytologist.
(1843 – 1905)
Studied cell center
and nucleus.
Cell center
 Cell center haven’t in
higher plants.
Cell center
Строение:
 Surrounding from 2 perpendicular
centrioles.
 Cylinders – formed from protein
microtubes.
 Centrioles arounded of cytoplasm
- centersheros
Centrioles surrounded by the
sealed of the cytoplasm centerosphera
Cell center
Functions:
Участвует в образовании
веретена деления –
центриоли расходятся к
полюсам.
Между ними натягиваются
микротрубочки, к которым
прикрепляются хромосомы.
 It participates in the
formation of spindle centrioles to the poles
diverge.
Between them stretched
microtubules, which are
attached to the
chromosome.
Movement organoids
Pseudopodium
Flagella
Cilia
Movement organoids
Строение:
 Flagella and cilia are
composed of microtubules.
 In muscle cells, the
contractile function of
microfilaments provide myofibers.
Movement organoids
Functions:
 Helps move of
organisms. Provide
movement of the body.
Cell inclusions nonpermanent cell structures that appear
and disappear.
Cell inclusions
 Protein inclusions –
granules.
Cell inclusions
 Lipid inclusions –
drops.
Cell inclusions
 The crystals of
calcium oxalate.
Cell inclusions
Starch inclusions –
grain.
Tasks:
1. Specify a group of substances that make
up the microtubule organelles of motion:
1) proteins;
2) carbohydrates;
3) lipids;
4) Mineral salts.
Tasks:
2. Specify in the form of inclusions in the
cells which may be starch:
1) granules;
2) crystals;
3) grain;
4) drops.
Tasks:
3. Specify in the form of cells inclusions
which are proteins:
1) granules;
2) crystals;
3) grain;
4) drops.
Tasks:
4. Choose function of the cell center:
1) формирование веретена деления клетки;
2) хранение наследственных признаков;
3) управление процессами жизнедеятельности
клетки;
4) сборка рибосом.
1) forming a spindle cells;
2) possession of hereditary traits;
3) management of vital processes
cells;
4) assembly of ribosomes.
Tasks:
5. What organelle consisting of two
perpendicular to each other protein
cylinders:
1) Golgi apparatus;
2) Cell center;
3) ribosomes;
4) ER.
Tasks:
6. Cell center has in cells:
1) Higher plants;
2) animal;
3) fungi;
4) bacteria.
Tasks:
7.Choose of the structure part of
cytoskeleton :
1) carbohydrates;
2) microfilaments;
3) Cell wall;
4) lipids.
•
ELEMENT IN THE CELL
1. There are about 92 element occurring naturally in
nature.
2. From these 92 element, only about 25 element are
needed to build living organisms.
3. Not all these element found in all living cell.
4. Main elements are the most frequently found
elements in cells, forming about 96% of the human
body mass.
5. Micro-elements are the elements are found in small
quantity in cells, but are important in biological
processes.
CHEMICAL COMPOUND IN THE CELL
1. Chemical compounds in the cell can be divided into two
major group:
• Organic
• Inorganic
2. Organic compounds are:
• Chemical compounds contain carbon (exception are
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbides and
carbonates which are typically considered as inorganic)
• Are usually found in and originate from living organism.
• Usually consist of macromolecules (large molecules).
3. Inorganic compounds are:
• Chemical compounds that do not contain carbon
• Usually a smaller and simpler than organic compounds
• Founds in cells water, acids, alkalis and mineral salts
I.
II.
III.
IV.
I.
II.
III.
There are 4 main group of organic compounds in cells:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates
The carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms in a molecule usually 2:1.
Many carbohydrates have the general formula CX(H2O)Y,where x
is approximately equal to y.
Three basic types of carbohydrates are monosaccharide,
disaccharides and polysaccharides
• Monosaccharide
i. Monosaccharide also called simple sugar
ii. The common monosaccharide are six-carbon
sugar with a molecular formula of C6H12O6
iii. Example of monosaccharide are glucose, fructose
(fruit sugar) and galactose
iv. Glucose is the most common monosaccharide
and respiratory substrate
v. Monosaccharide are sweet-tasting crystalline
substances which are soluble in water
•
i.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed from two
monosaccharide molecules combining together
with the elements of a molecule of water. The
chemical reaction of the formation is known as
condensation.
ii. The general formula of a disaccharides is
C12H22O11
iii. Disaccharides also called double sugar.
iv. Disaccharides can be broken down to their
constituent monosaccharide by a chemical
reaction involving the addition of water. The
reaction is know as hydrolysis.
v.
Like monosaccharide, they are sweet-tasting
crystalline substances that are soluble in
water.
Condensation
+
+ H2 O
Hydrolysis
C6H12O6
C6H12O6
glucose
fructose
C12H22O11
water
sucrose
vi. The most common disaccharides are maltose,
lactose and sucrose.
Condensation
+
+ H2 O
Hydrolysis
C6H12O6
C6H12O6
glucose
glucose
C12H22O11
water
maltose
Condensation
+
+ H2 O
Hydrolysis
C6H12O6
C6H12O6
glucose
fructose
C12H22O11
water
sucrose
Condensation
+
+ H2 O
Hydrolysis
C6H12O6
C6H12O6
glucose
galactose
C12H22O11
lactose
water
• Polysaccharides
i. Many monosaccharide molecules join together in a
condensation reaction (with the removal of water
molecules) to form a large polysaccharides
molecules.
ii. Polymerisation is the process of condensing many
individual monosaccharide molecules to form a
large polysaccharides molecules.
iii. In polymerisation, the individual monosaccharide
molecule are called monomers.
iv. Polymerisation of monosaccharide forms:
• Glycogen – in humans and animals
• Starch and cellulose – in plants
glucose
Starch structure
Sub unit: Glucose
Consists of two components.
a) Unbranched, helical chains of glucose units
b) Branched chains of glucose units
Major storage of carbohydrate in plants
glucose
glycogen
•Sub unit: Glucose
•Molecules with many side branches
•Major storage of carbohydrates in animals and fungi, for
examples, in muscle cells and liver cells
glucose
cellulose
Straight unbranched chain of glucose units
Plant cell wall
• Proteins
1. Proteins are compounds of these element: carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen sulphur and phosphorus.
2. Amino acids are the subunits of all proteins.
3. Each amino acids carries two functional group:
a) A carboxyl group (- COOH) which is acidic and
b) An amino group (-NH2) which is basic.
COOH
carboxyl group
C
NH2
amino group
• Two amino acids can combine together to form
a dipeptide by a condensation reaction between
the carboxyl group of one and the amino group
of the other. The resulting a bond liking the two
amino acids that is called a peptide bond.
H2O
cooh
h
O
Hn
c
C
condensation
C
NH2
hooc
Peptide bond
h
n
c
c
nh2 hooc
•
•
•
•
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
LIPIDS
Lipids a diverse group of substance that contain carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. The proportion of oxygen is lower
than that in carbohydrates. For example, the general
formula of stearic acid is C18H36O2.
All lipids are insoluble in water
Lipids dissolve readily in other lipids and in organic
solvent such as ether and ethanol.
The main types of lipids are:
Fats
Oils
Waxes
Phospholipids
steroids
Fats and oils
• Fats are solid at room temperature (20°C), whereas oil
are liquid
• Each molecule of fats or oils is made up of one glycerol
combine with three fatty acids which may be the same or
may be different. Three molecule of water are remove in
this condensation reaction.
Condensation (- H2O)
+
Hydrolysis (+ H2O)
glycerol
3 fatty acids
molecules
Triglyceride +
3 water molecules
Type of
fatty acids
Example
Structural formula
Saturated
Stearic acid
CH3(CH2)16COOH
Unsaturated
Oleic acid
CH3(CH2)7CH=CH(CH2)7COOH
• Fats and oils function efficiently as energy storage
material. Fats and oils provide 38kJ per gram, while
carbohydrates can provide only 17 kJ per gram.
Waxes
• Waxes are similar to triglycerides, but the fatty
acids are bonded to long-chain alcohols rather than
glycerol
• Waxes are usually hard solids at room temperature
• Waxes are used to waterproof the external surface
of plants and animal. The cuticle of a leaf and the
protective covering on an insect’s body are made of
waxes.
• Wax is also a constituent of the honeycomb of bees
Phospholipids
• Phospholipids have a similar structure to
triglycerides but one of the fatty acids is replaced
by a phosphate group
• The end of the phospholipids molecule containing
the phosphate group is hydrophilic. The other end
containing the hydrocarbon chain of the fatty acids
is hydrophobic.
• The hydrophilic end is soluble in water while
hydrophobic is insoluble in water.
• Phospholipids bilayer from the basis of all cell
membrane.
Steroids
• A steroid molecule has a complex ring structure
• Steroid occur in plants and animals
• Examples of steroids are cholesterol, testosterone,
estrogen and progesterone.
Steroid
cholesterol
testosterone
estrogen and
progesterone.
Function
Strengthens the cell membrane at high
body temperature
Male reproductive hormone
female reproductive hormone
• Saturated and and saturated fats
• Animal fats such as lard, butter and cream are
example of saturated fats
• Vegetable oil such as olive oil and sunflower oil are
example of unsaturated fats.
ENZYMES
• Enzymes are protein molecules act as biological
catalysts. They speed up the rate of metabolic
reactions and do not chemically changed at the
end of the reaction
• The substance whose reactivity is increased by
an enzymes is knowing as a substrate