Download Maintaining biological diversity in ocean areas outside

Shanghai American School Pudong Model United Nations 2016
Forum:
Special Conference on the Commons
Issue:
Maintaining biological diversity in ocean areas outside national
jurisdictions.
Student Officer:
Selene Kung
Position:
Deputy President of the Special Conference on the Commons
Introduction
The ocean covers 71% of the earth’s surface. It is responsible for the world’s climate by storing and
transporting heat and liquid. Moreover, the ocean constitutes 99% of the world’s living space, is home to 50%80% of all life on earth, and likely hosts a range of 750,000 to 25 million species (“Little Known Facts About The
Ocean”). Unfortunately, due to climate change and human activity such as overfishing, deep-sea mining, and oil
and gas drilling, the ecosystems and lives of species are increasingly threatened. According to the World Wildlife
Fund (WWF), 85% of the world’s marine stocks are overfished. Most species remain undiscovered and their
importance is consistently underemphasized. Nevertheless, the extinction of unknown species could disrupt the
entire food chain in unpredictable and devastating ways. In 2013, 17% of the global population’s animal protein
intake depends on fish (“Fish as Food”). Furthermore, developing countries rely extensively on fish production for
trade, employment, and vital food resources. For these reasons, countries must treat the loss of marine biodiversity
as a primary concern.
The wellbeing of territorial seas depends on the policies of the host country. Certain governments establish
protected zones, or marine protected areas (MPAs) to conserve their marine life, regulate their waste distribution,
and conduct environmental impact assessments. 50% of earth is covered by high seas - ocean areas outside any
nation’s jurisdiction, and marine protected areas make up only 2% of the entire world and 1% of the high seas
(Marine Conservation Institute, “Marine Protected Areas”). The limited area covered by MPAs is due to the lack
of legal mechanisms and frameworks for oceans outside national jurisdictions. Nations need to reach agreement on
measures to protect endangered species in international waters and establish shared responsibility for analyzing
and controlling the causes of biodiversity loss.
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Definition of Key Terms
Aquaculture
Aquaculture is also known as fish or shellfish farming. It is the culturing of marine species, both
plants and animals, and takes place in cages in tanks, oceans, or ponds. Aquaculture produces food and
ornamental fish and vegetables for human consumption, which are often grown to market size in short
time periods using unsustainable methods. For instance, genetic modification can cause negative effects to
the ecosystem. Irresponsible waste distribution contributes to environmental destruction, and coastal
ecosystems are destroyed to create space for fish farms. The intensely concentrated species also allows for
rapid spread of diseases and parasites.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity refers to the abundance of species with different categorizations in an area. The term
can refer to both animals and plants. There are two different types of biodiversity - genetic biodiversity
and ecological biodiversity. Genetic biodiversity is the genetic variation within species, as in the number
of different types of one species. Ecological biodiversity refers not only to the variety of species, but also
the interactions between the species and the environment.
Ecosystem
A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment. Every species in
a certain area plays its own role in the cycle. A healthy ecosystem indicates that the number of each
species is balanced and capable of reproduction. Ecosystem can be threatened by the introduction of a
new species that did not previously belong, or the removal of a certain species.
High Seas
At the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III) in 1982, states were
given right to assume jurisdiction over marine resources and have the right to exploration and exploitation
in their exclusive economic zones (EEZs), which extend 200 miles from a state’s shoreline (“Exclusive
Economic Zones”). Ocean areas outside such zones are called high seas - not belonging under any
nation’s jurisdiction. All states have the freedom of navigation, fishing and scientific research on the High
Seas, and can even construct artificial islands and installations as long as it is permitted under
international law, according to UNCLOS.
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Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
Marine protected areas are areas of the oceans that are protected for conservation. MPAs are
usually under the jurisdiction of different federal, state, tribal, and local agencies. Species in MPAs grow
to be healthier, and entire ecosystems are more independent and sustainable. As these species eventually
move out of MPAs to other areas, they strengthen the weaker populations there and have the potential to
improve marine ecosystems globally.
History & Developments
Causes of Disturbance in Marine Ecosystems
Marine ecosystems have been increasingly threatened since the industrial revolutions of the nineteenth
century, causing a rapid decrease in marine biodiversity. Scientists face difficulty in keeping record of the marine
biodiversity loss, because much of the ocean is still inaccessible, even with the world’s current technology.
Therefore, large numbers of species are left unidentified.
Industrialization decreases hotspot’s size and diversity, which provide recovering space for vulnerable
species when undamaged. Decrease in biodiversity can have an extremely rapid effect on the entire ecosystem.
When the population of a species decreases, the genetic variation decreases as well, thus compromising the ability
of later generations to adapt to environmental changes. Together with rapid climate change, this can endanger the
ecosystem in a frighteningly fast-paced manner. At the same time, research and observation show that multiple and
likely increasing numbers of species are restricted to very limited areas, oppressing their inhabitant. As species are
interdependent, such as through the food chain, the extinction of one species can greatly disrupt the ecosystem. For
example, the extinction of predators in one ecosystem can cause an over-burst of the prey population, and would
destroy their habitation.
Human activities
Human activities, such as inappropriate distribution of waste and exploitation, are major causes of
pollution and destruction of ocean life. Overfishing poses the greatest threat to marine biodiversity. Since
the industrial age, ocean species that humans consume have been reduced by approximately 10%,
endangering many (“Overfishing”). Studies in early 2016 on fishing show that approximately 109 million
metric tons of fish are caught annually, when only 32 million metric tons were officially reported in 2010
(“Sea Around Us Study Finds 30 % of Global Fish Catch is Unreported”). Deep-sea fishing is especially
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threatening. A defining characteristic of deep-sea fish is low productivity, so depletion of such species is
highly unsustainable seeing as they cannot reproduce as much as humans exploit. Another widely
performed yet unsustainable form of fishing is trawling. The steam-powered trawler, first introduced in
England in 1906, drags a net through the water and captures all living organism that it comes across. This
process captures organisms not mature enough to be consumed, and injures them to the point where they
can no longer survive when set back into the ocean. The act of trawling also results in broken corals and
flattened sponge reefs, which provide shelter. Recognizing the risks of overfishing, aquaculture developed
to serve as a more stable and sustainable source. Aquaculture’s production expanded from 3.9% of the
world’s fish production in 1970 to 27.3% in 2000 (Clark, Claussen, "The Oceanic Crisis: Capitalism and
the Degradation of Marine Ecosystem")
Deep-sea mining is another destructive method of exploitation, as it is conducted in both national
and international waters. Organisms in deep-sea areas are not yet fully identified by scientists, making it
difficult to predict their responses to disturbance. Nevertheless, it is known that their slow growth, low
resilience, and delayed recovery make them especially vulnerable. The mining process introduces loud
noises and bright lights that the organisms of deep-sea areas are not accustomed to, disturbing their
lifestyle. The release of heavy metals and acid pollutes the ocean communities, kills many species, and
destroys many of their food sources. Some of the toxic particles released can even cause a reduction in
oxygen concentration. Organizations such as Greenpeace International seek to cease seabed-mining
applications completely until all marine inhabitants are fully protected.
Oil is a huge source of pollution in the ocean; ironically, the ocean is also one of the largest
sources of oil. One-third of the world’s oil comes from offshore drilling, such as in the North Sea, the
Arabian Gulf, and the Gulf of Mexico. As the demand for oil grows, the deep sea drilling industry grows,
and so does the risk of oil spills and leaks. Oil leaks from automobiles get washed into drains and into
rivers, and surprisingly pollute the ocean more than the BP oil spill in 2010 - the biggest oil spill in
American history. Dumping of other trash also pollutes the ocean on a daily basis. The rubbish dumped
into the ocean each year is in fact three times as much as the amount of fish caught. This harms multiple
species: for example, sea turtles mistake plastic bags for jellyfish and after consuming these, their
digestive systems are destroyed. Plastic materials that stay long in the ocean are often eroded into micro
plastics, which are exceedingly difficult to remove and which enter the bio systems of all marine life.
Past incidents have proven that human intervention can bring catastrophes to ecosystems. For
example, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) banned commercial whaling in 1986 because the
activity endangered the species. In attempts to resume the industry fishermen began to argue that whales
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threaten their fish supply, and resolved to start killing whales in mass numbers. The consequence was that
killer whales, not having weaker whales to prey on, began targeting seals and otters. The reduction of
otters resulted in a great increase of its prey, which consumed fish larvae. As fewer larvae survive,
fishermen were deprived of their livelihood (Shah, “Loss of Biodiversity and Extinctions”). Clearly,
disrupting any single part of an ecosystem may cause disasters beyond expectations.
Climate change
Changes in temperature and seasons cause changes in distribution of marine species, their cycles,
and their habits. Many species depend on temperature change to facilitate periods of reproduction, so with
global warming, species are forced to suddenly adopt different reproductive habits. Coral bleaching is one
of the results of raising temperature. As a response to warmer temperature, corals release the algae
(zooxanthellae) in their tissues and thus turn white and perish. This situation can be extremely serious in
certain regions, even reaching 70%
coral mortality (“Marine Problems:
Climate Change”). Unlike corals,
many other species can seek regions
with more ideal water temperatures.
As a result, fish in the North Sea
have moved deeper and further
North, and a large shift in
distribution of marine species is
now evident. For some species, even
the gender of the offspring is
dependent on temperature, so the
unnatural change in temperature and
climate disproportions gender ratios
Figure 1: Coral bleaching process
and has the possibility to immediately plunge them into danger of
extinction. Extreme weather also poses a huge threat to marine life, especially to coral ecosystems. The
rising sea levels prove dangerous to offshore plants. Scientists predict the sea level will a rise up to 69 cm
by 2100 due to thermal expansion from increase in temperature and the melting polar ice (“Sea level rise:
Drowning in numbers”). A deeper sea level will reduce the access of sunlight for offshore plants and affect
the process of photosynthesis.
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An important process called “vertical mixing” allows the ocean to bring the nutrients from the
bottom to the surface and oxygen from the surface to the deep sea. Climate change has decreased this
process and therefore is decreasing the amount of oxygen accessible to deep-sea habitats. Hence, the deepsea species will be endangered due to lack of oxygen.
The atmosphere is another source of pollution to the ocean. Together with global warming, air
pollution is responsible for 33% of the toxins in sea (“Little Known Facts About The Ocean”). Dissolved
carbon dioxide in the ocean reacts with water to form carbonic acid. The ocean currently absorbs up to
30% of the carbon dioxide produced by humans. It now contains fifty times as much carbon dioxide as the
atmosphere, disrupting the ocean cycle and its interactions with the atmosphere. This increasing amount of
carbon dioxide is called “acidification” and has caused a 30% increase in acidity since the 1760s
(beginning of the Industrial Revolution). Since wind brings pollution in the atmosphere around the world,
oceans around the world are likewise affected by acidification. Experts estimate that by the end of the
century, the acidity of the ocean will increase by 150% (“What is Ocean Acidification”). The increasing
amount of carbon dioxide in the ocean is dissolving the oxygen necessary for marine species to survive,
and it is increasingly difficult for shellfish, crabs, lobsters, and corals to build up calcium for their
skeletons and shells.
Programs on Marine Biodiversity
Multiple programs have been established to either conserve biodiversity or research and develop
hypotheses on the responses marine species would have to global climate
Figure 2: Official MPA map
change.
Marine protected areas (MPAs)
Marine protected areas
(MPAs) are established by state
governments to protect vulnerable or
endangered marine species. Human
activities are strictly monitored in
these areas. The United States,
Australia, Sweden, Canada, and the United Kingdom are the top 5 contributors to establishing marine
protected areas. China, India, Japan, Malaysia, and Indonesia are also active contributors. Marine
protected areas are managed by individual federal, state, territorial, and even tribal programs. The United
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States established the National Marine Protected Center in 2000 to develop a framework and system for
American marine protected areas.
There are different forms of MPAs, some more restrictive than others. Some operate by absolute
prohibition of access; others set limitations but allow educational or recreational interactions. In this case,
restrictions can be set on equipment by prohibiting certain technology that might harm the inhabitants or
quotas. The use of licenses or permits can also be an effective method of regulation. Marine reserves are
special types of marine protected areas. They exclude all acts of exploitation unless it is necessary for
scientific reasons.
MPAs in oceans outside national jurisdictions require an international framework and
collaboration of surrounding states. As the threat of reducing marine biodiversity becomes a growing
concern, multiple agreements and conventions began to lay out responsibilities of states and organizations
to establish and maintain MPAs in high seas. Such conventions include UNCLOS, the UN Fish Stocks
Agreements, the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and FAO International Guidelines for the
Management of Deep-sea Fisheries. Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RMFOs) are
currently in charge of most protected areas in international seas. But illegal, unreported and unregulated
(IUU) fishing still occurs in such areas, and RMFOs often lack authority for management.
Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics (GLOBEC)
The Global Ocean Ecosystem Dynamics (GLOBEC) was established in 1990 by the Scientific
Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR) and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)
of UNESCO to examine and predict the responses of marine ecosystems to global climate change. Its
Scientific Steering Committee (SSC) is dedicated to the core project, GLOBEC, of the International
Geosphere-Biosphere Program (IGBP) of the International Council for Science. The Joint Global Ocean
Flux Study (JGOFS) is one of the first core projects of the IGBP. The project was launched under the
SCOR in 1987, and its participants come from more than 20 nations. Its primary objective was to examine
carbon fluxes in the ocean, its regulations, and their reaction in the context of recent carbon cycles.
Expanding its studies may prove useful in combatting acidification. SCOR led the JGOFS North Atlantic
Pilot Study in 1989, with the main participants being Germany, the United Kingdom, Netherlands, the
United States, and Canada. The SSC’s primary purpose was to guide and oversee scientific development
and the planning and implementation of GLOBEC. It also worked to raise awareness of issues in marine
biodiversity among scientific communities and sought support from governments and funding agencies
for their research. The GLOBEC project ended in March 2010. Some of its programmes completed their
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agendas and others continued their research as part of the Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and
Ecosystem Research (IMBER) programme, also under SCOR.
Geopolitics
High Sea Alliance (HSA)
The High Sea Alliance was founded in 2011 with 33 NGOs as members to spread awareness and advise
governments on conserving biodiversity. The main goal of the High Sea Alliance is to create a binding, legal
document or treaty to protect marine ecosystems under the UNCLOS. The UN has already resolved to develop a
complete framework and mechanism for marine protected areas by 2018, but other agreements have not yet been
reached. The High Sea Alliance has also been campaigning for a legally binding treaty on conserving marine
biodiversity in the high seas since 2011, and succeeded when the UN General Assembly finally adopted a
resolution in June, 2015.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the most important member of the High Sea
Alliance. Created in 1948, the IUCN is the world’s largest environmental network. Its primary role is to provide
data, assessments, and analysis of marine habitats. The IUCN is also a platform for organizations, governments,
local communities, and individual experts to work together to combat environmental challenges.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Regional Fishery Bodies (RFB)
Regional Fishery Bodies (RFB) are organizations or states that created an international fishery
arrangement for regulation against overfishing. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) provides support to
the Regional Fishery Bodies. FAO created the International Guidelines on the Management of Deep-sea Fisheries
in the High Seas and worked to implement these guidelines by working with willing countries such as Norway,
Japan, and France. FAO develops improved tools to identify deep-sea marine life for fishing vessels, and spreads
awareness on the vulnerability of current marine ecosystems.
Since the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992, the Regional Fishery
Bodies have been assigned to facilitate international cooperation between fishermen through its Regional Fisheries
Management Organizations (RFMO). RFMOs regulate areas in oceans outside national jurisdiction by Fishing
Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS). It is a system that is installed on vessels to track their position and ensure none
are trespassing on protected areas. However in certain areas of oceans outside national jurisdiction RMOs still lack
authority to protect areas completely.
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United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission (UNESCO-IOC)
UNESCO made a proposal to conserve marine habitats, which included methods such as establishing a
better process for identification, granting mining or fishing rights, conducting environmental impact assessments,
and creating institutional mechanisms to implement future agreements. The IOC Ocean Observations and the
Services Section (OOS) coordinates the Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS), which oversees data
management. The GOOS showed significant information on the cycles of global warming. The ocean absorbs the
heat and continues to warm up. The data comes from the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Data, Information
Exchange (IODE), the Joint Technical Commission for Oceanography, and Marine Meteorology (JCOMM). This
entire data gathering is crucial for understanding the world’s climate change.
China
Overfishing is the greatest threat against marine biodiversity. China takes first place in the world’s marine
capture, followed by Peru, USA, Japan, and Indonesia. Since the 1950s, Bohai, Zhoushan, South China Sea coast,
and the Gulf of Tonkin have been rich sources for fisheries. In the past decade, overfishing caused a great
reduction in the species fishermen rely on. The gains dropped from up to a hundred kilograms per trip to very little
per year, and prices rocketed 40 to 50 times as a result (“Overfishing pushes 80% of Chinese fishermen towards
bankruptcy”). Certain species even experienced a population drop of up to 80% (“The Disastrous Impact Of
Overfishing In The South China Sea”). Desperate fishermen began to target younger and smaller fish, leaving few
fish to grow mature enough to reproduce. The use of trawling and nets in South China Sea and industrial pollution
are also threatening marine life in the area. Moreover, the conflict in South China Sea makes it exceedingly
difficult to regulate fishing practices, so methods to protect marine life within the South China Sea will be difficult
to implement.
Peru
Peru is the second largest fishing country, exporting more than one million tons of fish in 2010 alone.
Peru’s economy relies especially on anchoveta, taking up 80% of its fishing production (“Peru’s vanishing fish”).
In order to meet the quota set by the government, fishermen began targeting smaller and younger fish. Half of
their anchoveta production was immature, with some ships far more than half, while the government regulation
requires less than 10% immature fish. Another issue in Peru’s anchoveta fishing is that hardly any of the
production goes directly to its citizens as a food source. Almost all of the production is made into fishmeal or oil
then exported to U.S. and China (Oceana: Overfishing, El Nino push Peru’s anchovy fishery to critical point).
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Previous Attempts to Solve the Issue
The Convention on Biological Diversity established the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in its Nagoya meeting,
under the attendance of nearly 200 countries. The Aichi Targets calls for at least 10% of the ocean to be covered
by a network of marine protected areas by 2020, and urges the restoration of at least 15% degraded areas. The plan
also focuses on relieving coral reefs of current pressures. It creates an overarching framework for protecting
biodiversity and is still under the process of implementation.
The UN passed a resolution proposed by UNESCO in June 2015 for a 2-year conference (PrepCon)
starting in March 2016 to develop a legally binding treaty for conserving ocean life outside national jurisdictions.
It is to be decided and finalized by September of 2018 and reported to the General Assembly. The resolutions asks
for PrepCon to meet periodically to negotiate topics related to marine biodiversity, with its president elected by
UN General Assembly.
Aside from the organizational or national efforts to maintain marine biodiversity, individual inventions
have also made contributions. The Dutch “Ocean Cleanup Project” (OCP) was founded by Boyan Slat from his
invention of a device that collects trash in the ocean. Recognizing that 8 million tons of plastic ends up in the
ocean (“The Largest Cleanup in History”), he invented a device with floating barriers circling about 60 km that
would drive the floating trash into a platform. The barrier will not affect marine species because it simply drags
through the surface, without any net that would entangle marine life. The plastic collected would then be recycled
into products or oil.
Australians, Andrew Turton and Pete Ceglinski, invented the “Seabin,” which not only clean up trash, but
oil, fuel, and detergents. The device is simply a bucket connected to a filter and a pump that floats on the surface,
so it only attracts floating trash and not marine life. The bucket filters out the trash and pumps the clean water back
into the ocean. Although this project is of a smaller scale compared to Slat’s, it is said that it can be implemented
very soon. A recent partnership was signed with Poralu Marine, a French equipment supplier for marinas.
Therefore, it is likely that Seabins will be operating worldwide by the end of 2016.
Relevant UN Treaties and Events
●
General Assembly Resolution 2015, 19 June (A/RES/69/292)
●
UN Convention on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS)
●
UN Convention on Environment and Development (UNCED)
●
FAO Code of Conduct on Responsible Fisheries
●
FAO International Guidelines for the Management of Deep-sea Fisheries
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●
UN Fish Stocks Agreements
●
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Possible Solutions
As mentioned by the proposals of UNESCO and the High Sea Alliance, the most urgent action for
maintaining biodiversity in the high seas is to create an international legal framework to establish and regulate
marine protected areas and marine reserves in the high seas. Delegates should urge all countries to ratify the
latest UNCLOS in order for its new framework to be implemented. Parts of the resolution should focus on
considering the authorities and responsibilities of implementing this framework, such as expanding MPAs in high
seas and establishing monitoring mechanisms, coordinated by existing regional organizations to regulate and
connect such MPAs.
Current harms to marine biodiversity should also be tackled. As fishing is the main factor,
cooperating with organizations, countries, and fishing companies to come up with agreements, following the
FAO Code of Conduct on Responsible Fisheries through regional fishery organizations (RFOs), as well as raising
awareness in the public to discourage consumption of certain more endangered species could be possible
solutions. Methods to encourage and ensure states and companies follow responsible aquaculture are also
necessary to ensure gender ratios stay balanced. Alternatives to deep-sea mining should also be considered, such as
encouraging and supporting governments and companies to recycle e-waste and reuse the metal components as
a more sustainable method. Stricter regulations or more stable materials and technology in offshore oil and
gas drilling can also decrease the risk of spilling and contamination. Frameworks, agreements, and regulations
on waste distribution would also reduce contamination as well as cleaning rubbish from the ocean and shore
regularly. For instance, recruiting volunteers or cooperating with schools to clean the shore or widely
implementing the cleaning device invented by Boyan Slat, which relies on ocean currents to collect trash, or the
Seabin, which acts like a filter.
Delegates should aim to address issues in this report with both short term and long term methods. Short
term and immediate action should be focused on protecting currently endangered species and preventing sources of
harm such as irresponsible aquaculture or waste distribution. Long-term plans should include developing and
implementing frameworks for establishing MPAs in oceans outside national jurisdiction, and combatting climate
change.
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