Download biosphere,major habitat,animal distribution and invasive species or

BIOSPHERE,MAJOR HABITAT,ANIMAL DISTRIBUTION AND INVASIVE
SPECIES OR EXOTICS
ABSTRACT
There are variety of species living in the earth.Planet Earth’s weather system have created a
range of habitats.The changes of environment and climate have caused different types of habitats
and ecosystem.All the species have their specific adaptions in order to survive in their
environment.The habitats are always vary and important as habitat provides shelter and food
sources for the animals.Different country has different climate and forecast which is only suitable for
certain species,creatind an unique biomes.In this research,you will learn about the biosphere,types
of habitats,distributions of animals.
The adaptations of animals and their specific physical characteristics allow them to survive in
specific habitat,same are caused by other factors for example food sources,low breeding rate and
more.Actually earth’s biosphere and the organisms in it have evolved together. In the continuous
interchange between organism and environment, both have been altered, and a favorable
relationship preserved. Earth’s biosphere, with its living and non-living components, is not a static
thing but has undergone an evolution in every way as dramatic as the evolution of the animal
kingdom. Today the biosphere is changing rapidly under the impact of humans, one of the greatest
agents of biotic disturbance the earth has ever known.
In this study,we can learn about our species in our country and their distributions based on
the habitat.Some are threatened species and invasive species or exotics.Every country has own
unique habitat so we must discover it.
1.INTRODUCTION
All life is confined to a thin veneer of the earth called the biosphere. From the first
remarkable photographs of earth taken from the Apollo spacecraft, revealing a beautiful blue and
white globe lying against the limitless backdrop of space, viewers were struck and perhaps humbled
by our isolation and insignificance in the enormity of the universe. The phrase “spaceship earth”
became a part of our vocabulary, and the realization evolved that all the resources we will ever have
for sustaining life are restricted to a thin layer of land and sea and a narrow veil of atmosphere above
it. We could better appreciate just how thin the biosphere is if we could shrink the earth and all of its
dimensions to a 1 m sphere. We would no longer perceive vertical dimensions on the earth’s surface.
The highest mountains would fail to penetrate a thin coat of paint applied to our shrunken earth; a
fingernail’s scratch on the surface would exceed the depth of the ocean’s deepest trenches.
In a universe of billions of stars, our earth is a small planet circling an ordinary star.
Thousands of other stars are like our sun with planetary systems that conceivably could support life.
Yet, of all these, our planet is the only one that we know supports life. Until proven otherwise, the
earth is unique, a true wonder of an infinite universe.
What makes earth an especially fit environment for life? Most biologists would agree that
foremost is the presence of liquid water on the earth’s surface. Water, with its many extraordinary
physical properties provided the medium for the origin of life and bestowed on earth a moderate
climate suitable for life’s continued evolution. Many other properties of earth make it optimal for life.
Among these are a steady supply of light and heat from an unfailing sun; a suitable range of
temperature for life, neither too hot nor too cold; a supply of the major and minor elements required
by living matter; and a gravity force strong enough to hold an extensive gaseous atmosphere.
An organism and its environment share a reciprocal relationship. The environment is
modified by organisms, and populations of organisms are modified by the evolutionary process to
adapt them to the environment and its changes. As an open system, an animal is forever receiving
and giving off materials and energy. Building materials for life are obtained from the physical
environment, either directly by producers such as green plants or indirectly by consumers that return
inorganic substances to the environment by excretion or by decay and disintegration of their bodies.
A living form is a transient link that is built of environmental materials, which are then
returned to the environment to be used again in the recreation of new life. Life, death, decay, and recreation have been the cycle of existence since life began.
The primitive earth of 4.5 billion years ago, barren, stormy, and volcanic with a reducing
atmosphere of ammonia, methane, and water (Figure 1), was wonderfully fit for the prebiotic
syntheses that led to life’s beginnings. Yet, it was totally unsuited, indeed lethal, for the kinds of
living organisms that inhabit the earth today, just as early forms of life could not survive in our
present environment. The appearance of free oxygen in the atmosphere, produced largely if not
almost entirely by life, is an example of the reciprocity between organism and environment.
Although oxygen was at first poisonous to early forms of life, its gradual accumulation from
photosynthesis over the ages forced protective biochemical alterations to appear that led eventually
to complete dependence on oxygen by most organisms. As living organisms adapt and evolve, they
act on and produce changes in their environment. In so doing they must themselves change.
Figure 1
Changing composition of earth’s atmosphere over time. The primitive
atmosphere formed as hydrogen, methane, and ammonia. Hydrogen, too light
to be held by the earth’s gravitational field, was lost to space. Nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and water vapor emitted from volcanoes replaced the
remaining primitive gases. The first free oxygen was formed by solar radiation
acting on water molecules (photochemical dissociation) in the atmosphere.
When oxygen-producing plants appeared 3 to 3.5 billion years ago atmospheric
oxygen gradually rose to its present level approximately 400 million years ago.
2.DISTRIBUTION OF LIFE ON EARTH
Life on earth are distributed based on the presence of water,the change of climate,the
capability of breeding,the material on earth and others.Most organisms prefer moist place and water
cause water is the basic neccecities,but some organisms prefer dry regions,for example
tarantula,rattlesnake and more.These animals not only distributed based on their adaptations but
also based on their variation and barriers.
The many properties that make the earth wonderfully suitable for life were first recognized
and examined in detail by Lawrence.J.Hendreson.The biosphere comprises lithosphere,the earth’s
rocky shell;hydrosphere,the global distribution of water;and atmosphere,the blanket of gas
surrounding the earth.
Furthermore, the biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be called the zone
of life on Earth, a closed (apart from solar and cosmic radiation and heat from the interior of the
Earth), and self-regulating system. From the broadest biophysiological point of view, the biosphere is
the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their
interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. The biosphere is
postulated to have evolved, beginning through a process of biogenesis orbiopoesis, at least some 3.5
billion years ago.
In a broader sense; biospheres are any closed, self-regulating systems containing ecosystems;
including artificial ones such as Biosphere 2and BIOS-3; and, potentially, ones on other planets or
moons.
2.1 Biosphere and Its Subdivisions
The biosphere as usually defined is the thin outer layer of the earth capable of supporting life.
It is probably best viewed as a global system that includes all life on earth and the physical
environments in which living organisms exist and interact. The nonliving subdivisions of the
biosphere include the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere.
The lithosphere is the rocky material of the earth’s outer shell and is the ultimate source of
all mineral elements required by living organisms. The hydrosphere is the water on or near the
earth’s surface, and it extends into the lithosphere and the atmosphere. Water is distributed over the
earth by a global hydrological cycle of evaporation, precipitation, and runoff. Five-sixths of the
evaporation is from the ocean, and more water is evaporated from the ocean than is returned to it
by precipitation. Oceanic evaporation therefore provides much of the rainfall that supports life on
land. The gaseous component of the biosphere, the atmosphere, extends to some 3500 km above
the surface of the earth, but all life is confined to the lowest 8 to 15 km (troposphere). The screening
layer in the atmosphere of oxygen-ozone is concentrated mostly between 20 and 25 km. The main
gases present in the troposphere are (by volume) nitrogen, 78%; oxygen, 21%; argon, 0.93%; carbon
dioxide, 0.03%; and variable amounts of water vapor.
Figure 2:
“Greenhouse effect.” Carbon dioxide and water
vapor in the atmosphere are transparent to
sunlight but absorb heat energy reradiated from
the earth, leading to warming of atmospheric air.
Atmospheric oxygen has originated almost entirely from photosynthesis. As discussed in the
origin and chemistry of Life, the primitive earth contained a reducing atmosphere devoid of oxygen.
When oxygen-producing photosynthesis appeared about 3 billion years ago (Figure 1), oxygen
gradually began to accumulate in the atmosphere. It is believed that by the mid-Paleozoic era, some
400 million years BP, the oxygen concentration had reached its present level of about 21%. Since
then, oxygen consumption by animals and plants has approximately equaled oxygen production. The
present surplus of free oxygen in the atmosphere resulted from fossilization of plants before they
could decay or be consumed by animals. As these vast stores of fossil fuels are burned by our
industrialized civilization, the oxygen surplus that accumulated over the ages conceivably could be
depleted. Fortunately, depletion is unlikely for two reasons: (1) most of the total fossilized carbon is
in the form of noncombustible shales and rocks, and (2) the oxygen reserves in the atmosphere and
in the oceans are so enormous that the supply could last thousands of years even if all
photosynthetic replenishment suddenly were to cease.
The rapid input of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels may
significantly affect the earth’s heat budget. Much of the sun’s short-wave light energy absorbed by
the earth’s surface reradiates as longer-wave infrared heat energy (Figure 2). Materials in the
atmosphere, especially carbon dioxide and water vapor, impede this heat loss and allow the
atmosphere to warm up. This heating of the atmosphere is called the “greenhouse effect,” since the
atmosphere acts to trap reradiated heat from the earth in much the same way the glass of a
greenhouse traps heat reradiated by the plants and soil inside. While the greenhouse effect provides
conditions essential for all life on earth there is concern that the gradual accumulation of carbon
dioxide could lead to an increase in the temperature of the biosphere as a whole (Figure 3).
Figure 3:
Rise in global atmospheric carbon dioxide and global temperature averages for
the past 140 years. Data points before 1958 come from analysis of air trapped
in bubbles in glacial ice from sites around the world. Atmospheric carbon
dioxide has climbed steadily for more than a century while the earth’s
temperature has followed a more erratic upward trend.
2.2 Terrestial Environments:Biomes
A biome is a major biotic unit bearing a characteristic and easily recognized array of plant life.
Botanists long ago recognized that the terrestrial environment of the earth could be divided into
large units having a distinctive vegetation, such as forests, prairies, and deserts. Animal distribution
has always been more difficult to map, because plant and animal distributions do not exactly
coincide. Over time zoogeographers came to accept plant distributions as the basic biotic units and
recognized biomes as distinctive combinations of plants and animals. A biome is therefore identified
by its dominant plant formation but since animals depend on plants, each biome supports a
characteristic fauna.
Each biome is distinctive.Actually Malaysia is richly endowed with a variety of natural
habitats ranging from sandy beaches to sub-alpine forests. Different forest types and habitats,
suitable and attractive to particular bird assemblages, have their own species distribution and
composition.The formation of these different habitats in Malaysia is influenced by climate
(temperature and rainfall patterns), quantity and quality of available water, soil type and altitude.
Habitats may be affected by human activity, and man-made landscapes and vegetation should not be
neglected as important habitats for watching birds adapted to that landscape.
Figure 5:Major biomes of Malaysia
Major biomes of Malaysia
Boundaries between biomes are
not distinct as shown but grade into
one another over broad areas.
The principal terrestrial biomes are temperate deciduous forest, temperate coniferous forest,
tropical forest, grassland, tundra, and desert. In this brief survey, we will refer especially to the
biomes of Malaysia and discuss about the special characteristics and how the animals are distributed.
3.Major Habitat of Malaysia
Major forest types in Malaysia are lowland dipterocarp forest, hill dipterocarp forest, upper
hill dipterocarp forest, oak-laurel forest, montane ericaceous forest, peat swamp forest
and mangrove forest. In addition, there also smaller areas of freshwater swamp forest, heath forest,
forest on limestone and forest and quartz ridges.
The forests in Malaysia are mostly dominated by trees from the Dipterocarpaceae family,
hence the term ‘dipterocarp forests’. The dipterocarp forest occurs on dry land just above sea level
to an altitude of about 900 metres.But in this research we will discuss about lowland
rainforest,montane rainforest,mangrove swamp and inland swamp.
3.1 Lowland rainforest
Borneo lowland rain forest is an ecoregion, within the tropical and subtropical moist
broadleaf forests Biome, of the large island of Borneo in Southeast Asia. It supports approximately
10,000 plant species, 380 bird species and several mammal species. The Borneo lowland rain forest is
diminishing due to logging and conversion to commercial land use.
The World Wildlife Fund has divided Borneo into seven ecoregions: five areas
of lowland forest; the central Borneo montane rain forests; and the Kinabalu montane alpine meadows.
The lowlands are distinguished by climate (as the eastern side of the island is drier) or separated by
the large Kapuas River and Barito River, which prevent animals and reptiles from spreading freely
around the island.
The other lowland ecoregions, in addition to the Borneo lowland rain forests, are:

Borneo peat swamp forests (large areas)

Kerangas heath forests

Southern Borneo Freshwater swamp forests

Sunda Shelf Mangroves.
The Borneo lowland rain forests described in this article consist of all lowland areas not clearly in
one of the above categories. They cover an area of about 165,100 square miles (427,500 km2), parts
of which lie in all the political territories of the
island: Kalimantan (Indonesia), Sarawak and Sabah (Malaysia) and Brunei.
Lowland Borneo has a stable climate, with monthly rainfall exceeding 8 inches throughout the
year and a temperature range of more than 18°C.
Figure 6:
Map of the Borneo lowland rain
forest ecoregion, on the island of Borneo.
Figure 7:
Profile of rainforest, showing
stratification of animal and plant life into
six strata. The animal biomass
is small compared with the biomass of
the trees.
3.1.1 Fauna in the lowland rainforest
The wildlife of this ecoregion consists of a large number of forest animals ranging from the
world's smallest squirrel, the least pygmy squirrel, to the largest land mammal in Asia, the Asian
elephant. It includes the critically endangered Sumatran rhinoceros, the endangered and
iconic Bornean orangutan, twelve other species of primate, Bornean bearded pigs and Bornean
yellow muntjac deer. The primates of Borneo are: three apes (Bornean orangutan, Müller's Bornean
gibbon and Bornean white-bearded gibbon), five langurs, the southern pig-tailed macaque, the longtailed macaque, Horsfield's tarsier (Tarsius bancanus), the Sunda slow loris (Nycticebus coucang) and
the endangered proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus). There are no tigers on Borneo; carnivores
include the endangered clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), the sun bear (Elarctos malayanus),
the otter civet (Cynogale bennettii), and several other mustelids and viverrids.
The 380 species of birds include eight hornbills, eighteen woodpeckers and thirteen pittas.
There are nine near-endemic and two endemic birds; the Black-browed Babbler (Malacocincla
perspicillata) and the White-rumped Shama (Copsychus stricklandii). Among the rich variety of
reptiles and amphibians are crocodiles and the earless monitor lizard (Lanthanotus borneensis). The
sounds of the forest vary from day to night as different combinations of these birds and animals
emerge to roam and feed.
3.2. Montane rainforest
This ecoregion consists of tropical Mountain Cloud forest and laurel forest. In the higher
elevations, above 1000m, in the centre of Borneo with sections in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Bruneiowned territories of the island. These cooler and moister slopes stick up out of the carpet of thick
rainforest that covers the warmer lowlands below, and as well as additional rainfall also derive
moisture from low cloud. Soils are poorer and more acidic than the lowlands.
3.2.1 Fauna in montane rainforest
The montane forests are home to a distinct fauna including large numbers of mammals such
as civets (such as the rare Hose's Civet Diplogale hosei, endemic to these montane forests), tree
shrews, squirrels, and rats and primates such as orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), gibbons, and langurs.
Although most of these primates prefer lower elevations there are especially good numbers of the
large macaque monkeys and as the forests are less-disturbed at higher elevations larger animals such
as oranguntans and Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) have retreated here from the
lowlands. Although there are fewer birds in the Bornean mountains than in the lowlands there is a
higher proportion of endemic species, indeed most of Borneo's unique birds live in the montane
forests e.g. on Mount Mulu in Sarawak there are 171 different birds in the lowlands and only 12
species at 1300m.
3.3 Mangrove swamp
Mangrove forests are a unique ecosystem generally found along sheltered coasts where they
grow abundantly in saline soil and brackish water subject to periodic fresh- and salt-water inundation.
Mangrove trees have specific characteristics such as tough root systems, special bark and leaf
structures and other unique adaptations to enable them to survive in their habitat's harsh conditions.
The habitat is soft, silty and shallow, coupled with the endless ebb and flow of water providing very
little support for most mangrove plants which have aerial or prop roots (known as pneumatrophores,
or respiratory roots) and buttressed trunks.
Despite its smelly reputation, a mangrove forest is a very dynamic and highly productive
ecosystem. It not only plays multiple ecological functions essential to its surrounding habitats, but is
also an important resource for coastal communities.
Figure 8:
Mangrove swamp located in
Perak,Malaysia.Mangrove has many
adaptations such as
pneumatophores,hydathodes and others.
3.3.1 Fauna of mangrove swamp
Due to the high productivity in mangrove swamps this environment supports a large number
of organisms. Mangrove leaves are the foundation of the food web in coastal swamps and account
for 90% of the primary productivity.
Direct feeders on the mangrove leaves include crabs (e.g. Fiddler crabs), and other detrital
invertebrates. Bacteria also degrade the fallen leaves to produce organic rich detritus, a food source
for bottom feeders such as starfish and sea urchins and for suspension feeders (e.g. barnacles,
oysters, mussels) and certain sedentary worms and small crustaceans. The last two are in turn food
sources for many fishes.
Bacterial action eventually breaks down all remaining organic material into dissolved
nutrients. From this source, mangrove trees again obtain nutrients for further growth.
Mangrove fauna can be divided into two groups- animals, which permanently live in the
swamp and those which spend only part of their lives there. The permanent dwellers include tree
mussels, sponges, oysters and barnacles (which live attached to mangrove prop roots).
3.4 Inland swamp(peat swamp forests)
The Borneo peat swamp forests ecoregion, within the Tropical and subtropical moist
broadleaf forests Biome, are on the island of Borneo, which is divided between Brunei, Indonesia and
Malaysia. Peat swamp forests occur where waterlogged soils prevent dead leaves and wood from
fully decomposing, which over time creates thick layer of acidic peat. The peat swamp forests on
Borneo occur in the Indonesian state of Kalimantan, the Malaysian state of Sarawak and in the Belait
District of Brunei on coastal lowlands, built up behind the brackish mangrove forests and bounded by
the Borneo lowland rain forests on better-drained soils. There are also areas of inland river-fed peat
forest at higher elevations in central Kalimantan around the Mahakam Lakes and Lake Sentarumon
the Kapuas River. Borneo has a tropical monsoon climate.
Although the Borneo peat swamp forests are not as biodiverseas neighbouring lowland
rainforests, the Borneo Peat Swamp Forests are some of the most speciose peat swamp forests in
Southeast Asia. Peat swamp forests are a key habitat for the unique dangered Borneo endemic
proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus). They are also home to the world's most desirable aquarium fish,
the arowana (Scleropages formosus).
Figure 9:
Peat swamp forest in Gunung Mulu National
Park with Nepenthes bicalcarata in the foreground
3.4.1 Fauna of peat swamp
These forests are home to wildlife including gibbons, orangutans, and crocodiles. In particular
the riverbanks of the swamps are important habitats for the Crab-eating Macaque (Macaca
fascicularis) and the Silvery Lutung (Presbytis cristata) and are the main habitat of Borneo's unique
and endangered Proboscis Monkey (Nasalis larvatus) which can swim well in the rivers, and
the Borneo Roundleaf Bat (Hipposideros doriae). There are two birds endemic to the peat forests,
the Javan White-eye (Zosterops flavus) and the Hook-billed Bulbul (Setornis criniger) while more than
200 species of birds have been recorded in Tanjung Puting National Park in Kalimantan. Rivers of the
peat swamps are home to the rare arowana fish (Scleropages formosus), otters, waterbirds, false
gharials and crocodiles.
4.Animal Distribution(Zoo geography)
Species distribution is the manner in which a biological taxon is spatially arranged. Species
distribution is not to be confused withdispersal, which is the movement of individuals away from
their area of origin or from centers of high population density. A similar concept is the species range.
A species range is often represented with a species range map. Biogeographers try to understand the
factors determining a species' distribution. The pattern of distribution is not permanent for each
species. Distribution patterns can change seasonally, in response to the availability of resources, and
also depending on the scale at which they are viewed. Dispersion usually takes place at the time of
reproduction. Populations within a species are translocated through many methods, including
dispersal by people, wind, water and animals. Humans are one of the largest distributors due to the
current trends in globalization and the expanse of the transportation industry. For example, large
tankers often fill their ballasts with water at one port and empty them in another, causing a wider
distribution of aquatic species.
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of biodiversity over space and time. It is very
useful in understanding species distribution through factors such as speciation,extinction,continental
drift, glaciation, variation of sea levels, river capture and available resources. This branch of study not
only gives a description of the species distribution, but also a geographical explanation for the
distribution of particular species. The traditional biogeographic regions were first modeled by Alfred
Wallace in The Geographical Distribution of Animals(1876). These were based on the work of
Sclater's terrestrial biogeographic regions. Wallace's system was based on both birds and vertebrates,
including non-flying mammals, which better reflect the natural divisions of the Earth due to their
limited dispersal abilities.
4.1 Clumped distribution
Clumped distribution is the most common type of dispersion found in nature. In clumped
distribution, the distance between neighboring individuals is minimized. This type of distribution is
found in environments that are characterized by patchy resources. Animals need certain resources to
survive, and when these resources become rare during certain parts of the year animals tend to
“clump” together around these crucial resources. Individuals might be clustered together in an area
due to social factors such as selfish herds and family groups. Organisms that usually serve as prey
form clumped distributions in areas where they can hide and detect predators easily.
Other causes of clumped distributions are the inability of offspring to independently move
from their habitat. This is seen in juvenile animals that are immobile and strongly dependent upon
parental care. For example, the bald eagle's nest of eaglets exhibits a clumped species distribution
because all the offspring are in a small subset of a survey area before they learn to fly. Clumped
distribution can be beneficial to the individuals in that group. However, in some herbivore cases,
such as cows and wildebeests, the vegetation around them can suffer, especially if animals target
one plant in particular.
Clumped distribution in species acts as a mechanism against predation as well as an efficient
mechanism to trap or corner prey. African wild dogs,Lycaon pictus, use the technique of communal
hunting to increase their success rate at catching prey. Studies have shown that larger packs of
African wild dogs tend to have a greater number of successful kills. A prime example of clumped
distribution due to patchy resources is the wildlife in Africa during the dry season; lions, hyenas,
giraffes, elephants, gazelles, and many more animals are clumped by small water sources that are
present in the severe dry season.[1] It has also been observed that extinct and threatened species are
more likely to be clumped in their distribution on a phylogeny. The reasoning behind this is that they
share traits that increase vulnerability to extinction because related taxa are often located within the
same broad geographical or habitat types where human-induced threats are concentrated. Using
recently developed complete phylogenies for mammalian carnivores and primates it has been shown
that the majority of instances threatened species are far from randomly distributed
among taxa and phylogenetic clades and display clumped distribution.
4.2 Regular or uniform distribution
Less common than clumped distribution, uniform distribution, also known as even
distribution, is evenly spaced. Uniform distributions are found in populations in which the distance
between neighboring individuals is maximized. The need to maximize the space between individuals
generally arises from competition for a resource such as moisture or nutrients, or as a result of direct
social interactions between individuals within the population, such as territoriality. For example,
penguins often exhibit uniform spacing by aggressively defending their territory among their
neighbors. Plants also exhibit uniform distributions, like the creosote bushes in the southwestern
region of the United States. Salvia leucophylla is a species in California that naturally grows in
uniform spacing. This flower releases chemicals called terpenes which inhibit the growth of other
plants around it and results in uniform distribution.[3] This is an example of allelopathy, which is the
release of chemicals from plant parts by leaching, root exudation, volatilization, residue
decomposition and other processes. Allelopathy can have beneficial, harmful, or neutral effects on
surrounding organisms. Some allelochemicals even have selective effects on surrounding organisms;
for example, the tree species Leucaena leucocephala exudes a chemical that inhibits the growth of
other plants but not those of its own species, and thus can affect the distribution of specific rival
species. Allelopathy usually results in uniform distributions, and its potential to suppress weeds is
being researched.[4] Farming and agricultural practices often create uniform distribution in areas
where it would not previously exist, for example, orange trees growing in rows on a plantation.
4.3 Random distribution
Random distribution, also known as unpredictable spacing, is the least common form of
distribution in nature and occurs when the members of a given species are found
in homogeneousenvironments in which the position of each individual is independent of the other
individuals: they neither attract nor repel one another. Random distribution is rare in nature as biotic
factors, such as the interactions with neighboring individuals, and abiotic factors, such as climate or
soil conditions, generally cause organisms to be either clustered or spread apart. Random
distribution usually occurs in habitats where environmental conditions and resources are consistent.
This pattern of dispersion is characterized by the lack of any strong social interactions between
species. For example; When dandelion seeds are dispersed by wind, random distribution will often
occur as the seedlings land in random places determined by uncontrollable factors. Tropical fig trees
exhibit random distribution as well because of wind pollination. In addition to tropical fig trees and
dandelion seeds, oyster larvae can travel hundreds of kilometers powered by sea currents, which can
result in their random distribution.
Figure 10:
There are three basic types of population distribution
within an area. From top to bottom: uniform, random
and clumped.
4.4 Abiotic and biotic factors
The distribution of species into clumped, uniform, or random depends on
different abiotic and biotic factors. Any non-living chemical or physical factor in the environment is
considered an abiotic factor. There are three main types of abiotic factors: climatic factors consist of
sunlight, atmosphere, humidity, temperature, and salinity; edaphic factors are abiotic factors
regarding soil, such as the coarseness of soil, local geology, soil pH, and aeration; and social factors
include land use and water availability. An example of the effects of abiotic factors on species
distribution can be seen in drier areas, where most individuals of a species will gather around water
sources, forming a clumped distribution.
Biotic factors, such as predation, disease, and competition for resources such as food, water,
and mates, can also affect how a species is distributed. A biotic factor is any behavior of an organism
that affects another organism, such as a predator consuming its prey. For example, biotic factors in a
quail’s environment would include their prey (insects and seeds), competition from other quail, and
their predators, such as the coyote.[8] An advantage of a herd, community, or other clumped
distribution allows a population to detect predators earlier, at a greater distance, and potentially
mount an effective defense. Due to limited resources, populations may be evenly distributed to
minimize competition,as is found in forests, where competition for sunlight produces an even
distribution of trees.
Figure 11:
Distribution of vary species in Malaysia.Based on the map,the species are distributed by biotic
factors(food sources,water),and also abiotic factors(habitat).There are more species in Borneo
compared to Titiwangsa which is in West Malaysia.For example,orangutan(pongo pygmaeus)mostly
live in rainforest located at Sepilok,Sandakan,Sabah.Greater malay chevrotain(Tragulus napu)mostly
prefer Borneo rainforest as habitat.The weather of Malaysia,which is dry and wet,is very suitable for
the growth of tropical rainforest.Furthermore,there are also a lot of mangrove swamp which is
suitable for aquatic species such as false gharial(Tomistoma schlegeli).In west Malaysia,leatherback
sea turtle(Dermochelys coriacea)is unique species located at Terengganu.
5.Invasive Species(Exotics)
Invasive species, also called invasive exotics or simply exotics, is a nomenclature term and
categorization phrase used for flora and fauna, and for specific restoration-preservation processes in
native habitats, with several definitions.



The first definition, the most used, applies to introduced species (also called "non-indigenous" or
"non-native") that adversely affect the habitats andbioregions they invade economically,
environmentally, and/or ecologically. Such invasive species may be either plants or animals and
may disrupt by dominating a region, wilderness areas, particular habitats, or wildland-urban
interface land from loss of natural controls (such as predators orherbivores). This includes nonnative invasive plant species labeled as exotic pest plants and invasive exotics growing in
native plant communities.It has been used in this sense by government organizations as well as
conservation groups such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and
the California Native Plant Society.The European Union defines "Invasive Alien Species" as those
that are, firstly, outside their natural distribution area, and secondly, threaten biological diversity.
It is also used by land managers, botanists, researchers, horticulturalists, conservationists, and
the public for noxious weeds.
The second definition includes the first, but broadens the boundaries to include indigenous or
native species, with the non-native ones, that disrupt by a dominant colonization of a particular
habitat or wildlands area from loss of natural controls (i.e.: predators or herbivores). Deer are an
example, considered to be over populating their native zones and adjacent suburban gardens, by
some in the Northeastern and Pacific Coast regions of the United States.
The third definition identifies invasive species as a widespread non-indigenous species.This one
can be too broad, as not every non indigenous or "introduced" species has an adverse effect on a
non-indigenous environment. A non adverse example is the common goldfish (Carassius auratus),
though common outside its native range globally, it is rarely in harmful densities to a native
habitat.
Because of the variability of its definition, and because definitions are often from a
socioeconomic perspective, the phrase invasive species is often criticized as an imprecise term
for the scientific field of ecology.This article concerns the first two definitions; for the third, see
Introduced species.
5.1 Causes
There are several causes of invasive species:
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Livestock or cultivation
Ornamental or pets escape
Transport by the human smuggling
Introduction of biological control
Religion release
Habitat change in the original geographic barriers disappear
Due to the frequent exchanges between humans around the world,causing many organisms to
overcome geographic isolation, extended to his place. Shifting alien species may not be able to adapt
to new habitats and soon disappeared, there may adapt to the new environment; If no predators to
control the new environment, coupled with exuberant fecundity, the alien species will become
invaders, soon compete with native species occur, destruction of local ecological balance, and even
cause economic harm to humans.
5.2 Species-based mechanisms
Invasive species seem to have traits or combinations thereof that enable them to outcompete native
species. The competition sometimes is about rates of growth and reproduction; species other times
interact with each other more directly. Common invasive species traits include:
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Fast growth
Rapid reproduction
High dispersal ability
Phenotypic plasticity (the ability to alter growth form to suit current conditions)
Tolerance of a wide range of environmental conditions (Ecological competence)
Ability to live off of a wide range of food types (generalist)
Association with humans
Prior successful invasions
An introduced species typically must survive at low population densities before it becomes
invasive in a new location.At low population densities, reproduction and maintenance in a new
location can be difficult: a species might go somewhere multiple times before establishing. Such
repeated patterns of human movement as ships sailing to and from ports or cars driving up and
down highways offer repeated opportunities for establishment (also known as a high propagule
pressure).
An introduced species might become invasive if it can out compete native species for such
resources as nutrients, light, physical space, water, or food. If these species evolved under great
competition or predation, then the new environment may host fewer able competitors, allowing the
invader to quickly proliferate. Ecosystems wherein native species fully use all available resources can
be modeled as zero-sum systems wherein any gain for the invader is a loss for the native; yet
however enticing this model is, unilateral competitive superiority (and extinction of native species
with increased populations of the invader) is not the rule.Invasive species often coexist with native
species for while gradually out competing it by adapting to the new location and growing in number
and population density.
An invasive species might use such resources that were previously unavailable to native species
as deep water sources accessed by a long taproot, or an ability to live on previously uninhabited soil
types. For example, barbed goatgrass (Aegilops triuncialis) was introduced to California on serpentine
soils, which have low water-retention, low nutrient levels, a high Magnesium/Calcium ratio, and
possible heavy metal toxicity. Plant populations on these soils tend to show low density whereas
goatgrass can form dense stands on these soils, crowding out native species that have poorly
adapted to serpentine soils.
5.3 Impact of alien species on native species
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Predator: prey native species, leading to population decline and even extinction.
Competition: expulsion, replacing the niche local native species.
Disease: infections not resistant native species, native species makes large-scale disease and
even death.
Hybridization: Pollution gene pool, changing the original genes, species composition.
Invasive species, will plant soil moisture and other nutrients, as well as knot biomes affect the
structural stability aspects and genetic diversity, so as to destroy the local ecological balance.Because
the plant can absorb a lot of soil moisture resulting in extremely dry soil, water and soil conservation
is very unfavorable.
Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example, invasive plants can alter the
fire regimen (cheatgrass, Bromus tectorum), nutrient cycling (smooth cordgrass Spartina alterniflora),
and hydrology (Tamarix) in native ecosystems.Invasive species that are closely related to rare native
species have the potential to hybridize with the native species. Harmful effects of hybridization have
led to a decline and even extinction of native species.For example, hybridization with introduced
cordgrass, Spartina alterniflora, threatens the existence of California cordgrass (Spartina foliosa) in
San Francisco Bay.Invasive species cause competition for native species and because of this 400 of
the 958 endangered species under the Endangered Species Act are at risk.
Invasive species also consumed a lot of costs.For example,there are a lot of countrys spend much
cost in order to control the spreading of invasive species.The costs are really large and unpredicted.In
addition,the alien species also cause the loss in many projects and economic activities.As
example,invasive species will destroy the crop yield,fishery,and others.
5.3.1 Impact of alien species to humans
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Economic loss: new pests and diseases caused agricultural losses
Health threats: trigger a new human disease
Encroachment of humans into previously remote ecosystems has exposed exotic diseases such as
AIDS virus to the wider population. Introduced birds (e.g. pigeons), rodents and insects (e.g.
mosquito, flea, louse and tsetse fly pests) can serve as vectors and reservoirs of human afflictions.A
recent example of an introduced disease is the spread of the West Nile virus, which killed humans,
birds, mammals, and reptiles. Waterborne disease agents, such as cholera bacteria (Vibrio cholerae),
and causative agents of harmful algal blooms are often transported via ballast water Invasive species
and accompanying control efforts can have long term public health implications. For instance,
pesticides applied to treat a particular pest species could pollute soil and surface water.
5.4 List of invasive species(in southeastern Asia country)
Name/Generic
Cat(Felis catus)
Black Rat (Rattus
rattus)
Grey squirrel(Sciurus
carolinensis)
Red-eared
turtle(Trachemys
scripta elegans)
Walking
catfish(Clarias
batrachus)
Description
Domestic cat about three thousand years ago, in the Eastern Mediterranean
region was reared humans. Since cats are valued as pets, naturally, was
transported to the human world. Cats threatened native birds and other
animals, especially on the island, because the island native species and
predators relative isolation.
Rodent native to the Indian subcontinent, now has spread to the world.
Widely distributed in forests and woodlands, but also the habitat inside and
outside buildings. They will eat and destroy any human food. Norvegicus
ship, often depending on the reasons for the reduction of birds on the
island. Its activity agile, often climbing to the top of the tree foraging and
nest of leaves.
Gray squirrel is native to deciduous forests in the United States, has been
the introduction of the United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy and South Africa. Was
introduced in the region, the gray squirrels will eat the bark of trees and
hurt, in Europe they make through competition with local disease red
squirrel disappear.
Red-eared red-eared turtle is a popular pet, due to be released into the wild
populations have been established in many parts of the world. It is found in
fresh and brackish water, including coastal marsh and pond turtles are
considered to compete with native aquatic. It is omnivorous and will eat
insects, crayfish, shrimp , worms , snails, amphibians and fish and aquatic
plants.
Walking catfish is native to southeastern Asia bulimia predators, has been
introduced to many places for fish farming purposes. Batrachus English
common name is called walking catfish (walking catfish), is due to their
ability to be able to move on the ground and naming. They are generally
considered to be an opportunistic feeder and can survive for months
without food situation. During a drought, a lot of walking catfish may
congregate in isolated pools and consume other species. They are known to
have invaded aquaculture farms, entering ponds where they prey on fish
stocks. Walking catfish has been described as a benthic, relying on tactile
omnivorous, feeding on detritus they will, when given the opportunity, will
prey on large aquatic insects, tadpoles and other fish .
CONCLUSION
The biosphere is a thin life-containing blanket surrounding the earth.The presence of life on earth is
possible because numerous conditions for life are fulfilled on this planet.These include a continuous
supply of energy from the sun,presence of water,a suitable range of temperatures,the correct
proportion of major and minor elements,and the screening of lethal ultraviolet radiation by
atmospheric ozone.The earth’s environment and living organisms have evolved together,each deeply
marking the other.
The earth’s biosphere comprises lithosphere,the earth’s rocky shell; hydrosphere,the global
distribution of water; and atmosphere,the blanket of gas surrounding the earth.
The earth’s terrestial environment is composed of biomes that bear a distinctive array of
plant like and associated animal life.The weather of Malaysia,which is near equator,has dry and wet
weather and doesn’t have four season.This such weather is very suitable for the growing of various
habitat and plants such as tropical rainforest located in Borneo and Titiwangsa,mangrove
swamp,inland swamp and others.There are also various types of unique species in Malaysia such as
leatherback sea turtle,hornbill,orangutan and others.This unique also become an attraction for
tourist also it’s our pride.
Zoogeography is the study of animal distribution on earth.Animals have distributed by
clump,random and regular.Actually the animal distribution can also be related by continental drift
theory,over 200 millions ago separated the lands into Asia,Africa,America,and others. Furthermore,
the animals are distributed by biotic or abiotic factors based on their basic needs and pery’s shelter.
The most or main reason is the food sources,as pery-predator relationship is maintained until reach
the dynamic equilibrium.Through this study,we can undrestand the reason of different species in
different country.
Invasive species are very dangerous species and we should raise the awareness about the
issue.Invasive species are transported to be used as predators in biological control,pets or scientific
investigations and other uses.But this wil bring a lot of negative impact,which not only to
environment,but also to humans,diversity,ecosystems,and even economic activities.Government and
private sector should take action in order to prevent the transportation on different species,such as
control,education,punishment,or even fine and inprisonment.The using of different species must be
thinked rasionally,as this action is breaking the natural law seriously.As invasive species as many
unique traits compared to native species,such as high competition rate.In addditon,the different
habitat cause the invasive species resilient easily and faster thus damage and disrupt the ecosystem.
Last but not least,we should appreciate our environment,spend our time learning and do
researching.I hope my research can be used as reference.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all,I would like to thank to the Principal of Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan Lutong,Mr
Marcus Hugo Matu Lejau for giving me the chance to represent my school to participate in the cybermentoring programme.I would also like to convey my thanks to my mentor,Professor Sherry Paul
Ramayla from the University of the Philippines (M.Education-Biology).Without his help and support
and willingness to provide unconditional help to answer the question,this research will not be end as
successful.Besides,I would like to express my thanks for my parents and teachers for their guidance
and help.Furthermore,I would like to show my appreciation to APEC Mentoring Centre for The Gifted
in Science(AMGS) for giving me the opportunity to receive the great education from Professor Sherry
Paul Ramayla who helped me to create my first scientific publication.
REFERENCES
1.The Encyclopedia of Animals-A complete Visual Guide
2.Integrated Principles of Zoology(International Edition)
3. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasive_species
4. www.eplantscience.com/.../the_biosphere_and_animal_distribution.php
5. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove_swamp
7. www.hartnell.edu/.../37.%20The%20Biosphere%20and%20Animal%20..
8. www.uccs.edu/~faculty/chuber/ges100/Chapt10-Mck10.doc
9. highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0072970049/student_view0/chapter37/
10.Visual Dictionary Animals
11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat_swamp_forest
12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species_distribution