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06/05/2017
Topic 4 – Waves and the Earth
Ultrasound
06/05/2017
Ultrasound is the region of sound above 20,000Hz – it can’t
be heard by humans. There are a number of uses for
ultrasound:
1) Pre-natal scanning
1) Sonar
2) Communication between animals
Pulse-Echo techniques
06/05/2017
In pulse-echo techniques sound is reflected from an object to
measure the distance to that object:
Pulse-Echo techniques - Ultrasound
06/05/2017
Ultrasound is the region of sound above 20,000Hz – it can’t
be heard by humans. It can be used in pre-natal scanning,
sonar techniques and as communication between _______:
How does it work?
Ultrasonic waves are partly _________ at the boundary as they pass from
one _______ to another. The time taken for these reflections can be
used to measure the _______ of the reflecting surface and this
information is used to build up a __________ of the object.
Words – depth, reflected, picture, medium, animals
The Maths of Pulse-Echo
06/05/2017
Consider shouting at a wall:
x
The speed of sound is given by:
Therefore
v = 2x/t
x = vt/2
The Maths of Pulse-Echo
06/05/2017
The echo takes 0.8 seconds to return
and the speed of sound in water is
1500ms-1. How deep is the water?
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
t/μs
Use the ultrasound scan to determine the width of the amniotic sac and
the width of the baby’s body. The speed of sound in the fluid is 1500ms-1
and in soft tissue the speed is 1560ms-1.
Using an oscilloscope with ultrasound
06/05/2017
Consider a block of
metal with a flaw:
20ms/div
Q. If the speed of the ultrasonic wave is 3,000m/s how
far away is the flaw from the detector?
Infrasound
06/05/2017
Infrasound is the region of sound BELOW 20Hz (as opposed to
ULTRASOUND which is above 20KHz) – it can’t be heard by
humans. Some uses:
1) Communication between animals
African elephants use infrasound to
communicate with other elephants many
kilometres away.
2) Detecting movement in remote areas
3) Detecting volcanic eruptions and
meteors
The Structure of the Earth
06/05/2017
A thin crust 10-100km thick
A mantle – has the
properties of a solid
but it can also flow
A core – made of
molten nickel and iron.
Outer part is liquid
and inner part is solid
How do we know this? These facts have all been
discovered by examining seismic waves (earthquakes)
Seismic waves
Earthquakes travel as waves through the Earth – we call them
SEISMIC WAVES. There are two types:
P waves:
1) They are longitudinal so they cause the ground
to move up and down
2) They can pass through solids and liquids
3) They go faster through more dense material
S waves:
1) They are transverse so they cause the ground
to move from right to left
2) They ONLY pass through solids
3) They are slower than P waves
4) They go faster through more dense material
06/05/2017
Seismic waves
06/05/2017
These P waves are
being reflected at the
crust
These P waves travel
through the Earth and
are refracted when
they pass through a
medium
The paths of these waves are all
curved because density is
gradually changing
These S waves cannot
travel through the
outer core as they only
go through solids
Locating Earthquakes
06/05/2017
By measuring the time
it takes the wave to
travel to these
locations the location
of the earthquake can
be found.
Movement of the Crust
06/05/2017
The Earth’s _______ is split up into different sections
called ________ plates:
These plates are moving apart from each other a
few centimetres every _______ due to the
________ currents in the mantle caused by the
________ decay of rocks inside the core.
Words – radioactive, crust, convection, tectonic, year
Plate Movements
Earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions can
be common here
Igneous Rock
Oceanic Crust
Mantle
Convection
Currents
06/05/2017
Magma
Topic 5 – Generation and
Transmission of Electricity
06/05/2017
Electric Current
Electric current is a flow
of charge around a circuit
+
-
e-
Note that
electrons go
from negative
to positive
and are
“pushed” by
the voltage
By definition, current is “the
rate of flow of charge”
e-
06/05/2017
Basic ideas…
06/05/2017
Electric current is when electrons start to flow around a
circuit. We use an _________ to measure it and it is
measured in ____.
Potential difference (also called _______) is
how big the push on the electrons is. We use a
________ to measure it and it is measured in
______, a unit named after Volta.
Resistance is anything that resists an electric current. It is
measured in _____.
Words: volts, amps, ohms, voltage, ammeter, voltmeter
More basic ideas…
If a battery is
added the current
will ________
because there is a
greater _____ on
the electrons
If a bulb is added
the current will
_______ because
there is greater
________ in the
circuit
06/05/2017
Electrical Power
06/05/2017
Power is defined as “the rate of transferring energy” and is
measured in units called “Watts” (W).
The amount of power being transferred in
an electrical device is given by:
Power = voltage x current
in W
in V
in A
P
V
I
1) How much power is transferred by a 230V fire that runs
on a current of 10A?
2) An electric motor has a power rating of 24W. If it runs
on a 12V battery what current does it draw?
3) An average light bulb in a home has a power rating of
60W and works on 230V. What current does it draw?
Fuels
06/05/2017
A “fuel” is something that can be burned to release heat and
light energy. The main examples are:
Coal, oil and gas are called “fossil fuels”. In
other words, they were made from fossils.
Some definitions…
06/05/2017
A renewable energy source is clearly one that can be
_______ (“renew = make again”), e.g. _____, solar power
etc.
A ___________ energy source is one that when it has
been used it is gone forever. The main examples are
____, oil and gas (which are called ______ ____, as they
are made from fossils), and nuclear fuel, which is nonrenewable but NOT a fossil fuel.
Words – non-renewable, coal, fossil
fuels, wood, renewed
06/05/2017
Using non-renewable fuels in power stations
1) A fossil fuel is burned in the boiler
2) Water turns to steam and the steam drives a
turbine
3) The turbine turns a generator
4) The output of the generator is connected to a
transformer
5) The steam is cooled down in a cooling tower and
reused
Efficiency of Power Stations
06/05/2017
Heat
100J
Boiler
85J
Heat
Heat
Turbine
35J
Kinetic
Heat
Generator
30J
Electrical
Pollution
06/05/2017
When a fuel is burned the two main waste products are _____
dioxide and ________ dioxide.
Carbon dioxide is a _________ ___ and helps cause _______
_________. This is produced when any fossil fuels are
burned.
Sulphur dioxide, when dissolved in ________, causes ______
_____. This is mainly a problem for ___ power stations.
Nuclear power stations do not produce these pollutants
because they don’t ____ fossil fuels.
Words – sulphur, coal, global warming, carbon,
acid rain, greenhouse gas, rainwater, burn
Nuclear power stations
06/05/2017
These work in a similar way to normal power stations:
The main difference is that the nuclear fuel is NOT
burnt – it is used to boil water in a “heat exchanger”
Start up times
06/05/2017
Different power stations have different start up times:
Gas
Quick
Oil
Coal
Nuclear
Slow
06/05/2017
Non-renewable energy sources
Advantages
Disadvantages
Pollution – CO2 leads
to global warming and
SO2 leads to acid rain
Cheap fuel costs
Generate a lot of
energy
Easy to use
Coal, oil, gas and
nuclear
Fuel will run
out
Renewable energy sources
Advantages
Disadvantages
Often depend on the
weather – is it sunny???
Clean
Won’t run out
Easily accessible
06/05/2017
Wind, tidal, solar etc
Look ugly
Energy is “dilute”
– in other words,
it’s very spread
out
06/05/2017
Other ways of generating electricity
Can we drive the turbine directly
without burning any fossil fuels?
Wind Power
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Tidal Power
High
tide
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Low
tide
Wave Power
06/05/2017
Hydroelectric Power
06/05/2017
Biomass
06/05/2017
Biofuels
Biomass can be used as a fuel in a number of ways:
1) Fast-growing trees that can be ____
2) Manure or other waste that can be
used to release _______ (biogas)
3) Corn or sugar cane that can be broken
down in a fermenter to produce
______ like bio-ethanol.
Biofuels have two main advantages
over traditional fuels – they are
______ and ________. However,
they still release ______ _______.
Words – alcohols, cleaner, burnt,
renewable, methane, carbon dioxide
06/05/2017
Solar Energy
06/05/2017
Solar panels – convert sunlight
directly into electricity.
Sunlight knocks electrons loose
from the crystal structure and
the loose electrons form an
electric current. The amount of
power depends on the area of
the panel and the light intensity.
Heating for homes – these pipes
carry water that absorbs heat
energy and transfers it to the
house.
Geothermal Energy
06/05/2017
Geothermal Energy
06/05/2017
Geothermal energy can be used in _______ areas such as
______. In a geothermal source cold water is pumped down
towards ____ _____. The water turns to steam and the
steam can be used to turn ______. In some areas the _____
rising at the surface can be captured and used directly.
Words – steam, Iceland, volcanic, turbines, hot rocks
Solar Panels and Thermal Towers
06/05/2017
06/05/2017
Using Solar Energy in remote places
Electromagnetic Induction
06/05/2017
N
The direction of the induced current is reversed if…
1) The wire is moved in the opposite direction
2) The field is reversed
The size of the induced current can be increased by:
1) Increasing the speed of movement
2) Increasing the magnet strength
06/05/2017
Electromagnetic
induction
The direction of the induced current is
reversed if…
1) The magnet is moved in the opposite
direction
2) The other pole is inserted first
The size of the induced current can be
increased by:
1) Increasing the speed of movement
2) Increasing the magnet strength
3) Increasing the number of turns on
the coil
S
N
AC Generators
06/05/2017
Voltage
Time
Other generators
06/05/2017
A dynamo works by the same
principle.
1) How can you make its
output bigger?
2) How can you reverse the
direction of its output
current?
06/05/2017
Large-scale production of Electricity
A generator at Drax power station in England
DC and AC
06/05/2017
V
DC stands for “Direct
Current” – the current only
flows in one direction:
Time
1/50th s
AC stands for “Alternating
Current” – the current
changes direction 50 times
every second (frequency =
50Hz)
230V
T
V
The National Grid
06/05/2017
Electricity reaches our homes from power stations through the National
Grid:
Power station
Step up
transformer
Step down
transformer
Homes
If electricity companies transmitted electricity at 240 volts through
overhead power lines there would be too much ______ loss by the time
electricity reaches our homes. This is because the current is ___. To
overcome this they use devices called transformers to “step up” the
voltage onto the power lines. They then “____ ____” the voltage at the
end of the power lines before it reaches our homes. This way the voltage
is _____ and the current and power loss are both ____.
Words – step down, high, power, low, high
Power Lines
Here’s my new shed. I
want to connect it to the
electricity I my house.
Should I use an overhead
cable or bury the cable
underground?
06/05/2017
Transformers
06/05/2017
Transformers are used to _____ __ or step down
_______. They only work on AC because an ________
current in the primary coil causes a constantly alternating
_______ ______. This will “_____” an alternating
current in the secondary coil.
Words – alternating, magnetic field, induce, step up, voltage
We can work out how much a transformer will step up or
step down a voltage:
Voltage across primary (Vp)
No. of turns on primary (Np)
Voltage across secondary (Vs)
No. of turns on secondary (Ns)
Some transformer questions
06/05/2017
Primary
voltage
Vp
Secondary
voltage
Vs
No. of turns
on primary
Np
No. of turns
on secondary
Ns
Step up or
step down?
12V
24V
100
?
?
400V
200V
20
?
?
25,000V
50,000V
1,000
?
?
23V
230V
150
?
?
Some example questions
06/05/2017
Primary
voltage
Vp
Secondary
voltage
Vs
No. of turns
on primary
Np
No. of turns
on secondary
Ns
Step up or
step down?
6V
24V
100
?
?
400,000V
200V
?
1,000
?
25,000V
?
20,000
20
?
?
230V
150
1,500
?
1) A transformer increases voltage from 10V to 30V. What is the ratio
of the number of turns on the primary coil to the number of turns on
the secondary coil?
2) A step-down transformer has twice as many turns on the primary coil
than on the secondary coil. What will be the output (secondary)
voltage if the input voltage is 50V?
The Cost of Electricity
06/05/2017
Electricity is measured in units called “kilowatt hours” (kWh).
For example…
A 3kW fire left on for 1 hour uses 3kWh of energy
A 1kW toaster left on for 2 hours uses 2kWh
A 0.5kW hoover left on for 4 hours uses __kWh
A 200W TV left on for 5 hours uses __kWh
A 2kW kettle left on for 15 minutes uses __kWh
The Cost of Electricity
06/05/2017
To work out how much a device costs we do the following:
Cost of electricity = Power (kW) x time (h) x cost per kWh (p)
For example, if electricity costs 8p per unit calculate the cost
of the following…
1) A 2kW fire left on for 3 hours
48p
2) A 0.2kW TV left on for 5 hours
8p
3) A 0.1kW light bulb left on for 10 hours
8p
4) A 0.5kW hoover left on for 1 hour
4p
Reducing Energy Consumption
06/05/2017
60W older bulb, roughly
70p, to be banned in
the EU from 2012.
25W “energy efficient” light
bulb, £7.30 on Amazon
1) Which one is more cost-effective?
2) Jane wants to replace all the bulbs in her house with energyefficient ones. If she has 10 light bulbs in her house calculate the
following:
a) How much will it cost her to buy the bulbs?
b) What will the total power consumption be reduced by?
c) If she uses the bulbs for 5 hours per day and electricity costs
10p per unit how much money will she save?
d) How long will it take her to repay the cost of the bulbs?
Energy and Power
06/05/2017
The POWER RATING of an appliance is simply how much
energy it uses every second.
In other words, 1 Watt = 1 Joule per second
E
E = Energy (in joules)
P = Power (in watts)
T = Time (in seconds)
P
T
Some example questions
06/05/2017
1) What is the power rating of a light bulb that transfers 120
joules of energy in 2 seconds?
2) What is the power of an electric fire that transfers
10,000J of energy in 5 seconds?
3) Farhun runs up the stairs in 5 seconds. If he transfers
1,000,000J of energy in this time what is his power rating?
4) How much energy does a 150W light bulb transfer in a) one
second, b) one minute?
5) Shaun’s brain needs energy supplied to it at a rate of 40W.
How much energy does it need during a physics lesson?
6) Damien’s brain, being more intelligent, only needs energy at
a rate of about 20W. How much energy would his brain use
in a normal day?
06/05/2017
Topic 6 – Energy and the Future
The 9 types of energy
Type
Heat
Kinetic (movement)
Nuclear
Sound
Light
Chemical
Electrical
Gravitational potential
Elastic potential
3 example sources
06/05/2017
The Laws of Physics
06/05/2017
There are many laws of physics, but one of the most important
ones is:
Energy cannot be created or
destroyed, it can only be converted
from one form to another
Energy changes
06/05/2017
To describe an energy change for a
light bulb we need to do 3 steps:
1) Write down the
starting energy:
2) Draw an arrow
Electricity
3) Write down
what energy types
are given out:
Light + heat
What are the energy changes for the following…?
1) An electric fire
2) A rock about to drop
3) An arrow about to be fired
Conservation of Energy
06/05/2017
In any energy change there is ALWAYS some “waste” energy:
e.g. a light bulb:
Electricity
Light
+
heat
In this example HEAT is wasted and it is transferred to
the surroundings, becoming very difficult to use.
Describe the following energy changes and state the “waste”
energy or energies:
1) A vacuum cleaner
2) A TV
3) A dynamo/generator
Efficiency
06/05/2017
Efficiency is a measure of how much USEFUL energy you
get out of an object from the energy you put INTO it.
For example, consider a TV:
Electrical
Energy (200J)
Sound (40J)
Efficiency = Useful energy out
Energy in
x100%
Some examples of efficiency…
06/05/2017
1) 5000J of electrical energy are put into a motor. The
motor converts this into 100J of movement energy. How
efficient is it?
2) A laptop can convert 400J of electrical energy into 240J
of light and sound. What is its efficiency? Where does
the rest of the energy go?
3) A steam engine is 50% efficient. If it delivers 20,000J of
movement energy how much chemical energy was put into
it?
06/05/2017
Energy Transfer (“Sankey”) diagrams
Consider a light bulb. Let’s say that the bulb runs on 100
watts (100 joules per second) and transfers 20 joules per
second into light and the rest into heat. Draw this as a
diagram:
“Input” energy
100 J/s
electrical
energy
“Output” energy
20 J/s
light energy
80 J/s heat
energy (given to
the surroundings)
Example questions
Consider a kettle:
2000 J/s
electrical
energy
Sound
energy
Wasted
heat
Heat to
water
1) Work out each energy value.
2) What is the kettle’s
efficiency?
06/05/2017
Consider a computer:
150 J/s
electrical
energy
10 J/s
wasted
sound
20 J/s
wasted
heat
Useful
light and
sound
1) How much energy is converted
into useful energy?
2) What is the computer’s
efficiency?
Radiation
06/05/2017
An introduction…
I’m cool!
I’m very hot!
Some examples of radiation
06/05/2017
Some examples of radiation
06/05/2017
Heat Loss from a House
06/05/2017
Radiation Practical
Time / min
Temperature in each container / 0C
Black
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
06/05/2017
Silver
Clear
Radiation
06/05/2017
Radiation is when heat moves around in electromagnetic _________ like
light does. Any hot object will emit heat radiation – the hotter it is, the
more radiation it emits. This type of radiation is called __________.
Dark, matt colours will absorb AND emit the _____ infra-red radiation,
and light, shiny colours will ________ it.
For a body to stay at constant temperature it must radiate the same
average ______ that it absorbs.
Words – reflect, infra-red, waves, most, power