Download - Mountain Research Initiative

Africanmountainouscountriesandtheir
mountains
RepublicofKenya
7/22/2015
AfroMontsourcedocument
SueTaylor
Africanmountainouscountriesandtheirmountains
RepublicofKenya
Contents
Socio-economicandpoliticalcontext.......................................................................................2
Structureoftheeconomy........................................................................................................2
Demographics..........................................................................................................................4
Urbanisationtrendsandpossibledrivers:................................................................................4
Geographicalandbiomeinformation......................................................................................6
Biodiversityinformation...........................................................................................................6
MountainsofKenya.................................................................................................................8
Profileof‘watertower’mountainsinKenya..........................................................................12
TheEasternArcMountains....................................................................................................10
MtKenya..................................................................................................................................8
MtElgon.................................................................................................................................10
EastAfricanRiftValleyandlakes............................................................................................13
EasternArcbiodiversityhotspotsandotherimportantareas...............................................11
ProtectedareasandmountainsinKenya...............................................................................14
RiftValleylakes.......................................................................................................................14
Naturalresourcedepletion,disasters,landdegradationandwaterissues............................15
Galanairrigationproject........................................................................................................15
Climatechangeprojections,vulnerablesectorsandimpacts................................................17
Sustainabledevelopmentchallenges.....................................................................................18
Summary................................................................................................................................19
References.............................................................................................................................20
1.0Socio-economicandpoliticalcontext
KenyaisaneastAfricancountryborderingtheIndianOcean,locatedbetweenSomaliaandTanzania.
KenyagaineditsindependencefromBritishcolonialruleon12December1963.Thecountryhasa
multi-partypoliticalsystemwhosehallmarkisparliamentarydemocracy.TheParliamentofKenyais
bicameralhouseconsistingoftheNationalAssemblyandtheSenate.ThecurrentPresidentofKenya
is His Excellency Hon. Uhuru Kenyatta, CGH who was sworn in on 9th April, 2013 as the fourth
PresidentoftheRepublicofKenya.1TheRepublicofKenyaisaunitaryState.
TheKenyaVision2030hasbeendraftedasthelong-termdevelopmentblueprintforthecountry–
aimstotransformKenyainto‘anewlyindustrialising,middle-incomecountryprovidingahighquality
oflifetoallitscitizensinacleanandsecureenvironment’(KenyaNCCAP,2013).
KenyaislocatedinEasternAfricaandstraddlestheequator,betweenlatitudes4oNand4oS,and
longitudes34oEand41oE.ThecountryisborderedontheeastbySomaliaandtheIndianOcean,on
thenorthbyEthiopiaandSudan,onthewestbyUgandaandonthesouthbyTanzania.
2.0Structureoftheeconomy
Sinceindependence,thecountryhasreceivedconsiderableforeignaidalthoughtheindustrialsector
stillremainsunderdeveloped.Thecountryhastoimportamajorityofitsconsumergoodsbecauseof
apoorlydevelopedmanufacturingsector,yet Kenyaisconsideredtobetheeconomicandtransport
hubofEastAfrica(EconomyWatch,2010;CIA,2015).Theservicesectoristhelargestcontributorto
Kenya's GDP and accounts for approximately 62.3% of the annual GDP volume (2009 data).
1
http://www.kenyarep-jp.com/kenya/government_e.html
Agriculturecontributesalmost21%toKenya’sGDP,withthissectorengagingmorethan75%ofthe
working population, largely in a subsistence economy. Kenya’s major agricultural produce includes
tea,coffee,wheat,sugarcane,fruits,vegetables,cutflowersanddairyproducts.
An over-reliance on traditional methods of agriculture have impacted on agricultural productivity
since1997(EconomyWatch,2010)andhasmeantthatfoodproductionhasfailedtokeeppacewith
the ever-increasing human population. Despite the country having been food self-reliant at
independence(1963),ithasbecomeanetfoodimporterandheavilyreliesonfoodimportsandaid.
On average, production of the major cereal, maize, is less than 1 MT/ha on most smallholder
farmers’ fields compared to up to 8 MT/ha on experimental stations or under good management .
Thelowproductionhasbeenattributedtolowuseofexternalinputsaswellasdecliningsoilfertility
resulting from increased nutrient mining and land degradation. Other factors include increasingly
adverse weather(which might be a climate change manifestation) and poor macro-economic and
sectoralpolicy(Waswa,2012).
Thetourismsectorplaysanimportantroleinthenationaleconomycontributingabout27%ofthe
foreignexchangeearningsand12%totheGDP.Kenya’stourismindustryislargelynature-basedand
the wildlife populations are highly susceptible to climate variability and change (National Climate
ChangeActionPlan,2010).
TheKenyaneconomyissufferingfrommanycomplexchallengesandtoensurethatKenyadoesnot
missfutureopportunities,andtakesfulladvantageofthe‘demographicdividend’(i.e.theeconomic
benefitofreducedbirthrages)thatmaycometoit,betterinfrastructureandbettergovernanceare
nowneeded(StateofKenyanEconomy,2011).Althoughimprovementsarebeingmade,overthelast
fewdecadesKenyahasnotmakesufficientprogressinupgradingitsinfrastructureandimprovingits
governance,andtheseconstraintsnowmadeitdifficultfornewindustriestotakeroot,especiallyin
manufacturing.Opportunitiestocreatejobsonalargescalehavebeenlost(Fengler,2010).
The World Bank’s latest economic analysis for Kenya
forecasts a growth rate of 4.7% in 2014, and says the
economyhasthepotentialtoachieveahighergrowthrate
of 5% in the next two years. A higher growth rate (2014
onwards) will depend on macroeconomic stability and
credible policies which have underpinned Kenya’s growth
in the past. The June 2014 report of the International
Monetary Fund states that current growth is powered by
aggregate demand, fuelled by strong consumption and
investment. The World Bank Group has launched a $4
billion programme under its new Country Partnership
Strategy2014-2018(CPS)tosupportKenya’sdevelopment
in the next four years. The strategy will enable Kenya to
improveitspotentialforgrowth,createmorejobsforthe
youth, build vital infrastructure and deepen devolution—
whichhasdevolvedpowerandaccountabilitytoregionalcommunitiesandincreasedprospectsfor
ending extreme poverty and improving shared prosperity among all Kenyans. Economic growth in
Kenya remains broad-based, with all sectors making a contribution to the Gross Domestic Product
(GDP)(IMF,2014).
The provinces and neighbours of Kenya are shown in the above map (sourced:
http://geology.com/world/kenya-satellite-image.shtml).
3.0Demographics
Kenya has one of the world's highest rates of population growth and the population has doubled
overthelast25years,toabout40millionpeoplecurrently.Rapidpopulationgrowthisexpectedto
continue even though Kenya has been a pioneer in instituting policies and programmes to address
populationchallenges.AccordingtorecentUNprojections,Kenya’spopulationwillgrowbyaround
one million per year over the next 40 years and is projected to reach about 85 million by 2050
(Fengler,2010).However,outcomesmaybedifferentasfamilyplanningisbecomingthenorm.
Although Kenya has been implementing family planning, the population number continues to rise
rapidly, although family size declines. This is because of two reasons. First, due to high fertility in
previousdecades,therearemanymorefamiliesinKenyatoday.Soeventhoughfamiliesaresmaller,
thetotalnumberofchildrencontinuestogrow.Second,Kenyansarelivinglonger.Lifeexpectancyis
projected to increase from 54 years today to 68 years by 2050. As a result of these trends, the
fastestgrowingpopulationgroupsinKenyaare15to64years—andtheseareexactlythepopulation
groupsthatwork.Fromonly22millionworking-agepeopletoday,Kenyaby2050willhaveabout56
million working-age people (Fengler, 2010). The population growth has increased pressure on the
country'snaturalresources,andalsoleavesyoungpeopleparticularlyvulnerabletopovertyasthere
arefewjobstoabsorbthem.
Despite some progress, the Kenyan population remains poor, and in the urban areas, a growing
majorityofurbandwellers(71%)liveinslums(YinandKent,n.d.).About70%ofthepoorareinthe
centralandwesternregions,livinginareaswhich,fortunately,dohavemediumtohighpotentialfor
agriculture. Poverty and food insecurity are acute in the country's arid and semi-arid lands, which
have also been severely affected by recurrent droughts. Rural women are especially vulnerable to
povertybecausetheydonothaveequalaccesstosocialandeconomicassets.Subsistencefarmingis
theprimarysourceoflivelihoodformostofthesewomen.
4.0Urbanisationtrendsandpossibledrivers:
Kenya is urbanising rapidly, like most other African countries. Recent United Nations estimates
suggestthatKenya’surbanpopulationwillexpandto38millionby2030andaccountfor62.7%of
thenationalpopulation.Theseprojectionsindicatethattheannualurbanpopulationgrowthratewill
average5.2%upto2010,4.2%overtheperiod2010-20and3.2%duringthesucceedingdecade
(Ngayu, 2011). At this rate of urbanization the majority of the Kenyan population will be living in
urban areas within the next 20 years. The scale of future urbanization will pose further socioeconomic, environmental and institutional challenges for Kenyan cities if the requisite policy and
planningframeworksarenotputinplace(Ngayu,2011).ThebulkofNairobi’sgrowth,forexample,
canbetracedtothein-migrationofpoormigrantsfromtheruralhinterland,manyofwhomendup
inmarginalizedslumneighbourhoods.However,incitiessuchasEldoretandKisumu,slumformation
isasaresultofannexationofruralsettlementsintomunicipalareasofjurisdictionthroughboundary
extensions.
Fengler(2010)remindsusthatKenya’sfuturepatternofurbanpopulationgrowthcanbeaforceof
good. A large urbanizing and well-educated population can generate a strong middle class and
vibrant private sector. Economic development can be easier to achieve and sustain in an urban
setting,althoughtherearenoguaranteesofthis.Fengler(2010)alsoremindsusthatifKenyawants
to harvest the opportunities of its demographic dividend (i.e. a larger consumer public, larger
workforce),itneedstobringfertilitybelowthreechildrenperfamilyandalsotoscaleupitsprovision
ofservicestocaterforarapidlygrowingandurbanizingcountry.
People living in informal settlements form substantial proportions of populations in the five major
urbancentresinKenya;inNairobiat60%,Mombasaat80%(coveringover90%ofthelandarea),
Kisumu60%,Eldoret30%andNakurucloseto40%(Ngayu,2011).Whilethereisthoughttobea
clearlinkbetweeneconomicoranation’swealthandtheformationofcities,inKenyacitiesarenot
realizing their full potential in contributing to economic growth and poverty reduction. In fact the
urban population has been increasing in a way that shows decreasing economic growth (Ngayu,
2011).
Kenyademographicandurbanisationtrends
Totalnationalpopulation(2012)*
45million
Total urban population (% of total population) 24%
(2011)***
Rate of urbanisation (annual rate of change 4.36%
(2010-2015est.)***
Slumpopulationaspercentageofurban(2007), 53%
definedbylackofaccesstosanitation***
Annualpopulationgrowthrates(2010-2015)*
National:2.7%
Urban:4.4%
Rural2.1%
Projectedpopulationby2050**
99million
Agestructure***
0-14years:42.1%
15-24years:18.7%
Totalunder25years60.8%
Medianage19.1years
Access to improved water sources (percentage urban:82.3%
ofpopulation)***
rural:55.1%
total:61.7%
Access to improved sanitation (percentage of urban:31.3%
population)***
rural:29.1%
total:29.6%
Literacy (Age 15 and older who can read and totalpopulation:87.4%
write)***
male:90.6%
female:84.2%(2010est.)
*http://www.indexmundi.com/kenya/population.html
**http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/kenya-population/ ***http://www.indexmundi.com/kenya/demographics_profile.html ApproximatepopulationsizesofKenya’smaincities
City
Population
Nairobi Metro
6, 547 000
Nairobi
Mombasa
Kisumu
Nakuru
Eldoret
3,375,000
1,200,000
409,928
307,990
289,380
4.0Geographicalandbiomeinformation
Kenya's regions make up two large divisions: one part of the nation consisting of elevated lands
formingthesouthwesternthirdofthecountry,andtheremainingtwo-thirdsofthenationforming
anarcoflowplateausandplains.Thelandsurfacerisesgraduallywestwardfromanarrowcoastal
plaininaseriesofplateaus,culminatinginahighlandareathatisbisectedbytheGreatRiftValley
andincludesthecountry'shighestpoint,MountKenya(5200masl).Thenorthernandnortheastern
regions of the country consist mainly of arid plains and are peopled by semi-nomadic pastoralists.
Thealtitudesfoundintheinlandplateauxregionsrangebetween1000mand1500m,andseveral
mountainrangesandpeaks,includingMountKenyawhich,becauseofitsaltitudehasapermanent
snow-cap.
The Kenyan highlands are temperate, the coastal zone hot and humid, and the arid areas are
generallyhot.Kenyahasalandareaof580728km2withapproximately85%ofthislandclassifiedas
aridandsemi-aridland(ASAL).TheASALareassupportalmost30%ofthetotalnationalpopulation
and 70 % of the livestock production (National Climate Change Action Plan, 2010). The equatorial
situationmeansthatthereisaverylimitedannualvariationintemperature.Infact,onlyaboutoneseventh of Kenya's land area, mainly the coastal and southern highland regions, receive a reliable
yearlyrainfallandalthoughmuchofcountryhastwowetandtwodryseasons,totalrainfallvaries
unpredictably. Only the coastal lowlands experience the constant high temperatures and humidity
associatedwithequatoriallatitudes,althoughdaytimeseabreezeshaveacoolingeffect.Mombasa
has an annual mean temperature of 26°C. The northern part of Kenya is also hot throughout the
year, but with lower humidity. Lodwar in the north-west has an annual mean temperature of 29°C
(UKMetOffice,n.d.).
Nairobi, in the southern inland highlands at 1800m altitude, has an annual mean temperature of
18°C,withapeakof19°CinMarchandalowof15°CinJuly.Kisuma,neartheshoresofLakeVictoria
inthewestat1350maltitude,hasanannualmeantemperatureof26°C.
4.1Biodiversityinformation
Kenya had over 35 000 species of flora and fauna. This diversity is created by the variable
ecosystemsrangingfrommarine,mountains,tropical,drylands,forestsandaridlands.Inadditionto
thesearesome467inlandlakeandwetlandhabitatscoveringabout2.5%ofthetotalarea.Kenyan
forestsareendowedwitharicharrayofplantandanimallife.Someofthespeciesendemictothe
foresthabitatsarefoundnowhereelseintheworld.Sincespeciesrichnesstendstocorrelatewith
theannualamountofrainfall,wetterforestsarericherinspecies.Forexample,KakamegaForesthas
the richest plant diversity in Kenya. However, coastal forests have more values as centres of
endemismwithmanyplantandanimalspeciesfoundnowhereelseintheworld(Netfund,2011)
About10-12%ofKenya’slandareaisdesignatedasprotectedareasandtheKenyaWildlifeServices
(KWS)managesabout8%ofthisarea.Around20%oftherestofthelandareaofKenyaisunder
cultivated agriculture and also simultaneously supports most of the human population, but the
remaining70%ofthelandareaismostlyrangeland.Inspiteoftheselanduses,insomecases,many
wildspeciesmaythrivebetteroutsidedesignatedprotectedareas(Netfund,2011).
Kenya has developed a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan in accordance with the UN
ConventiononBiologicalDiversity(UNCBD)(NBSAPKenya,2005).
AcomprehensivereportpreparedforUSAID/Kenyaentitled“KenyaTropicalForestandBiodiversity
Assessment”byBruceByerssummarizesthestatusofbiodiversityandforestsinKenya;discusses
thevaluesandeconomicsofbiodiversity;identifiesrelevantlaws,policies,andinstitutions
oftheGovernmentofKenyathataffectbiodiversityandforestmanagement;andreviewsthe
activitiesofnon-governmentalinstitutionsofallkinds(NGOs,donors,andtheprivatesector)(Byers
etal,2011).
Inthisreport,asetofprioritiesandrecommendationsforconservationactionswerelisted.
Analysisofthethreats,causes,andactionsnecessaryforconservingKenya’sbiodiversityand
forestsledtotheidentificationoffourmajorecosystemsashighprioritiesforaction(Byers
etal,2011:8).
The montane forest ecosystem stands out as a high priority for conservation because:
•
•
•
•
•
Theseforestsaretheecosystemwiththegreatestpercentageoftotalarealostofany
ecosysteminKenya,withonlyabout10%oftheiroriginalcoverageremaining;
Thedemandforagriculturalland,andconflictsoverit,stillthreateneventheremaining
smallfractionofthisecosystem.
Montaneforestsprovideirreplaceableecosystemservicesatthenationallevel,in
particularasthewatershedcatchmentsforalloftheriversofKenya,andhavehigher
potentialforcarbonsequestrationthananyotherecosystem;
Thisecosystemhasrelativelyhighlevelsofendemicspecies
ThegreatestnumberofspeciesinKenyaisfoundinmontaneforestsandcoral
reefs
USAID/Kenyaiscurrentlyworkingtowardsmeetingsomeoftheneedsidentifiedinthis
studythroughitsportfolioofenvironmentandNRMactivities.Someoftheactionsneeded
thatUSAIDcontributestoinclude:Inmontaneforests,theProMaraprogramishelping
regularizeandclarifylandtenure,supportingenforcementofthelandlaw,andtryingtostop
irregularandextra-legallandallocation.Theprogramisalsoworkingtoimprove
conservation,restoration,andmanagementofnativemontaneforestsandwatersheds
(Byersetal,2011:9).
5.0MountainsofKenya
5.1MtKenya
MountKenyaisthehighestmountain
inKenya(5200metresabovesealevel)
andthesecond-highestinAfricaafter
MtKilimanjaro.MountKenyaisa
stratovolcanothatinnowinactive.The
highestpeaksofthemountainare
Batian(5199masl),Nelion(5188
masl)andPointLenana(4985masl).
MountKenyaislocatedincentral
Kenya,about16.5kmsouthofthe
equator,and150kmnorth-northeast
ofthecapitalNairobi.Thereare
severaluniquevegetationbandsfromthebasetothesummit.Theslopesarecoveredby
differenttypesofforestandmanyalpineplantspeciesareendemictoMountKenya,suchas
thegiantlobeliasandseneciosandalocalsubspeciesofrockhyrax(seevegetationmap).An
areaof715km2aroundthecentreofthemountainwasdesignatedaNationalParkandin
April1978theareawasdesignatedaUNESCOBiosphereReserve.Thenationalparkandthe
forestreserve,combined,becameaUNESCOWorldHeritageSitein1997.Theglacierson
MountKenyaareretreatingrapidly,althoughglacialretreatandultimatedisappearanceare
likelytobelinkedtochangesinbothtemperaturetrendsaswellaschangesinprecipitation.
TheMountKenyaecosystemprovideswaterdirectlyforover2millionpeople.
IntermsofgeologicalformationofMtKenya,thecyclicgrowthanddestructionofthisLate
CenozoicStratovolcanohavebeenreconstructedforitssoutheasternsegment.Atleast
threemajordebrisavalanchedepositshavebeenreconstructedanddated.Theoldest
depositsindicateanedificecollapsearound4.9Ma,followedbyalargereventaround
4.1Ma.Thelastandbestpreserveddebrisavalanchedeposit,withstillsomemorphological
expressioncoveringthewhole1214km2SEsector,occurredaround2.83Ma.Thisverylarge
debrisavalancheeventmusthavetruncatedthewholetopofMt.Kenya.Oftheoriginal
typicalhummockyrelief,onlylocaltopographicaldepressionsarestillbestvisibleand
preserved.ResearchshowsthatMt.Kenyaattainedimpressivealtitudesduringitsmain
activityinthePliocene,beingoneofthehighestmountainsinthattimeandwasmost
probablycoveredbyanicecap.Correctingfortheknownneteastwardtiltingposteruptive
upliftofapproximately500moftheMt.Kenyasummit,ourreconstructionindicatesthatan
atleast5.6to7kma.s.l.highactiveMt.KenyaexistedinthePliocenelandscapebetween
5.1and2.8Ma(Schoorletal,2014).
Thisvolcanomusthavesignificantlycontributedtoregionalenvironmentalchange,by
catchingrainonitseasternslopesandprojectingarainshadowtowardstheKenyaRiftvalley
inthewest.Thelastmajoredificecollapseeventaround2.8Macoincideswithamajor
changeinregionalvegetation.ThissuggeststhatthetruncatingofMt.Kenyamayhave
causedsignificantchangesinthelocalclimatesurroundingMt.Kenyawithpossible
implicationsforenvironmentalchangeinthecentralKenyaRiftvalley,thecradleofhominin
evolution(Schoorletal,2014).
GlacialandearlyHolocene-agesedimentsfromlakesonMt.Kenyahavedocumentedstrong
responsesofmontanehydrology,ecosystems,andcarboncyclingtopastchangesin
temperatureandatmosphericCO2concentrations.However,littleisknownaboutclimate
andecosystemvariationsonMt.KenyaduringtheCommonEra(thepast~2000years),
despitemountingevidenceforsignificantclimatechangesintheEastAfricanlowlands
duringthepastmillenniumandrecentobservationsofalpineglacierretreatintheEast
Africanhighlands.ResearchshowsthatMt.Kenya'sclimatewashighlyvariableduringthe
past1800years.DroughtsatSacredLakearound~200C.E.,700C.E.,and1100C.E.alignwith
similardroughtsincentralKenyaandUganda/Congo,indicatingthatfailuresofboththe
IndianandAtlanticmonsoonscausedwidespreaddroughtthroughoutequatorialEastAfrica
duringtheearlyCommonEra(Koneckyetal,2014).
Incontrast,dryandwetperiodsatSacredLakeduringthepast500yearsshowmeridional
andzonalcontrastswithothersitesinEastAfrica,suggestingstrongspatialheterogeneity,
possiblyduetoindependentwaxingandwaningoftheAtlanticandIndianmonsoons.
Pronounceddryingafter~1870C.E.suggeststhatthecurrentdryphaseobservedatSacred
Lakemayhavebegunpriortothe20thcentury,aroundthetimewhentheretreatofMt.
Kenya'sglacierswasfirstobservedbyEuropeanexplorers.Mt.Kenya'svegetationresponded
stronglytotheserecentclimatechanges,highlightingtheparticularsensitivityoftropical
montaneclimateandecosystemstoregionalandglobalclimatepatterns,andunderscoring
thecriticalneedtounderstandpotentialimpactsoffutureclimatechangescenariosonthis
highlysensitiveregion(Koneckyetal,2014).
5.2MtElgon
MountElgonisanancienterodedstratovolcanowhichsitsastridetheUganda-Kenyaborder.
AlthoughnotthetallestoftheisolatedvolcanoesofEastAfrica,itisamongthelargestin
volume,risingupfromabaseover50miles(80km)indiameterontheplainsatabout1200
melevation.Elgonistoppedbyacalderaabout8kmindiameter,withseveralhighpoints
over4000maslalongtherim.
MtElgonisnotedforitsuniqueAfro-alpinetreesandplants,andforthemanycavesinits
mid-elevationslopes,whereelephantsandotherlargeanimalscanoftenbefoundeating
mineralsalts.Althoughnotpresentlyglaciated,duringtheIceAgesMountElgonsupported
numerousglacierswhichextendeddownbelow4000masl.At4321masl,MtElgonisthe
17th-highestmountainofAfrica.MountElgonNationalParkislocatedontheborderof
KenyaandUganda.MountElgonisanimportantwatercatchmentfortheNzoiaRiverwhich
flowstoLakeVictoriaandfortheTurkwelRiverwhichflowsintoLakeTurkana.
5.3TheEasternArcMountains
TheEasternArcisachainofancientmountains
coveredbyrainforestsandgrasslandsin
Tanzania,withasmallelement,theTaitaHillsin
Kenya.Itisthoughtthattheforesthassurvived
ontheEasternArcMountainsforover30
millionyearsandwereonceconnectedtothe
forestsoftheCongoBasinandWestAfrica.
Neighboringmountainsaremuchyounger,for
exampleMtKilimanjaroisestimatedtobe
about1-2millionyearsold(EasternArc
mountains,2015).TheEasternArcMountains
stretchforsome900kmfromtheMakambako
Gap,southwestoftheUdzungwaMountainsin
southernTanzaniatotheTaitaHillsinsouthEasternArcMountains
http://www.naturalcapitalproject.org/where/tanza coastalKenya.Theycompriseachainof12main
nia.html
mountainblocks:fromsouthtonorth,
Mahenge,Udzungwa,Rubeho,Uluguru,Ukaguru,NorthandSouthNguru,Nguu,East
Usambara,WestUsambara,NorthPare,SouthPareandtheTaitaHillsinKenya.Thehighest
point(KimhanduPeakintheUlugurus)ismorethan2600minaltitude,butmostofthe
rangespeakbetween2200-2500m.GeologicallytheEasternArcMountainsareformed
mainlyfromPre-Cambrianbasementrocksupliftedabout100millionyearsago(Burgesset
al,2003).
5.4EasternArcbiodiversityhotspotsandotherimportantareas
TheEasternArcMountainsandCoastalForestsofTanzaniaandKenyahotspotisoneofthe
smallestofthe25globalbiodiversityhotspots.Itqualifiesbyvirtueofitshighendemicity
andaseveredegreeofthreat.Althoughthehotspotrankslowcomparedtootherhotspots
intotalnumbersofendemicspecies,itranksfirstamongthe25hotspotsinthenumberof
endemicplantandvertebratespeciesperunitarea.Italsoshowsahighdegreeof
congruenceforplantsandvertebrates.Itisalsoconsideredasthehotspotmostlikelyto
sufferthemostplantandvertebrateextinctionforagivenlossofhabitatandasoneof11
‘hyperhot’prioritiesforconservationinvestment(Burgessetal,2003).Atleast200
vertebratesareofconservationconcernandaround500plantspeciesarestrictlyendemic
tothesemountains.Thesearemainlyfoundintheforesthabitats(EasternArcMountains,
2015).
ThebulkofthehotspotisinitswesternexpansioninTanzania,whichtakesintheEastern
ArcMountainsandthewatercatchmentsystemoftheRufijiRiver.ThereisanarrowhooklikeextensionofthehotspotneartheKenya/Tanzaniaborder.ThisfollowstheEasternArc
MountainstotheirnorthernmostlimitsintheTaitaHillsinKenya.Thehotspotalsoprojects
northwardsforabout100kminanextensionthatincludestheforestsoftheLowerTana
River(Burgessetal,2003).
ThehotspotincludestheIndianOceanislandsofMafia,PembaandZanzibar.TheEastern
ArcMountainsandCoastalForestsofTanzaniaandKenyahotspot(hereafterreferredtoas
theEasternArcMountainsandCoastalForestshotspot)isoneofthesmallestofthe25
globalbiodiversityhotspots.Itqualifiesbyvirtueofitshighendemicityandaseveredegree
ofthreat.Althoughthehotspotrankslowcomparedtootherhotspotsintotalnumbersof
endemicspecies,itranksfirstamongthe25hotspotsinthenumberofendemicplantand
vertebratespeciesperunitarea(Myersetal.2000).Italsoshowsahighdegreeof
congruenceforplantsandvertebrates.Itisalsoconsideredasthehotspotmostlikelyto
sufferthemostplantandvertebrateextinctionforagivenlossofhabitatandasoneof11
‘hyperhot’prioritiesforconservationinvestment(Burgessetal,2003).
Theoriginalforestcover(2000yearsago)ontheEasternArcMountainsisestimatedatto
havebeenaround23000km2,ofwhicharound15,000km2remainedby1900anda
maximumof5340km2remainedbythemid-1990s.AtthattimetheUdzungwascontained
thelargestareaofnaturalforest(1960km2),followedbytheNguru,Uluguru,Rubeho,East
Usambaras,SouthPare,WestUsambaras,Mahenge,Ukaguru,NorthPareandTaitaHills(6
km2).TheseandthefollowingestimatesofforeststatusandlossesintheEasternArcLosses
weregreatest,relativetooriginalcover,intheTaitas(98%),Ukaguru(90%),Mahenge(89
%)andWestUsambaras(84%).Theforestshadbecomehighlyfragmented,withmeanand
medianforestpatchsizesestimatedat10km2and58km2,respectively(Burgessetal,
2003).
Kenya’shighestmountains
Name
Elevation
1
Mount Kenya
5,199 m
2
Mount Elgon
4,321 m
3
Mount Kinangop
3,906 m
4
Opuru
2,856 m
5
Ng’iro
2,848 m
6
Longonot
2,776 m
7
Mount Kulal
2,285 m
8
Oldoinyo Sapuk
2,150 m
9
Mount Marsabit
1,707 m
10
Mogila
1,698 m
5.4Profileof‘watertower’mountainsinKenya
Kenya’sfivemain‘watertowers’(mountaincatchmentsthatsupplyriverbasins)arethe
AberdareMountains,theMauforestcomplex,MountKenya,MountElgonandthe
CheranganiHills.Thesemountainscover2%ofthecountry,butbecauseoftheirelevation
theyinterceptcloudsblowingofftheIndianOceanandthuscapturerainforthecountry.
ThesemountainsarethesourcesofallbutoneofKenya’smajorriversandtheirforestsand
soilsstoreandreleasewaterthatensuresyear-roundflowofmostrivers,supplyingmore
than75%ofthecountry’srenewablesurfacewater.Inthelast20years,theforestshave
beenseverelylogged,andthemajorriversarenolongerflowingastheyshould,
necessitatingnewcommunityapproachestomountainmanagement(Pearce,2015).
Thevalueofthehydrologicalecosystemservicesprovidedbymontaneandhighlandforests
isincreasinglybeingrecognizedandforthisreasontheseforestsareoftencalled“water
towers.”ThedraftWildlifeBillof2011specificallylists19ofthemasbeingof“national
importance”(Byersetal,2011:16).
ProtectedWaterTowersofNationalImportance(Kenya)
1 Mt.KenyaEcosystem
2. AberdaresEcosystem
3. Mt.ElgonEcosystem
4. MauForestComplex
5. CheranganiForests
6. ShimbaHillsEcosystem
7. ChyuluHills
8. TaitaHills
9. MarsabitForest
10. KibweziForest
11. NgongForest
12. KaruraForest
13. MathewsRange
14. MuaHills
15. LoitaHills
16. KakamegaForestNationalReserve
17. BonjogeForest
18. OlDonyoSabukNationalPark
19. NdundoriHill
5.5EastAfricanRiftValleyandlakes
Kenyaishometo64(9.50%)ofthetotalnumberoflakesfoundwithinthecontinentof
Africa.EightofthesemakeupthemainlakesintheKenyanRiftValley.Fromnorthtosouth,
thenamesoftheselakesareLakeTurkana,LakeLogipi,LakeBaringo,LakeBogoria,Lake
Nakuru,LakeElmenteita,LakeNaivasha,andLakeMagadi.Ofthoseeight,onlyLakesBaringo
andNaivashaarefreshwater.
LakeTurkana,atthenorthernendoftherift,is250kilometreslong,between15kilometres
and30kilometreswideandis125metresdeepatitsgreatestdepth.Mostoftheother
lakesareshallowandpoorlydrained,andthereforehavebecomealkaline.Theyhavewaters
thatarerichinblue-greenalgae,whichfeedinsectlarvae,smallcrustaceansandLesser
Flamingos.ThelarvaeandcrustaceansarefoodforfishandGreaterFlamingos.Massive
flocksofthesebirdshavebeenfoundtohaveaneffectonthelakesidesedimentsalso.Their
numberscausetramplingofthesiltsincertainareas,whilethefeedinggroundsare
oxygenatedduetoprobingbeaksinthemud.Theirnestmoundscanalsobepreservedand
cementedasthelake'swaterlevelschange.Theseformirregularitiesinthelakeside
topography.
ThreeshallowalkalinelakesandthesurroundinglandsmakeuptheKenyaLakesystem:Lake
Bogoriaat10700hectares(26000acres),LakeNakuruat18800hectares(46,000acres)
andLakeElementaitaat2534hectares(6,260acres).LakeBogoriaisacausticcauldron
fringedbygeysersandpopulatedbyoveramillionflamingos.Thissystemofalkalinelakes
hasoneofthemostdiversepopulationsofbirdsintheworld,andisthehomeofthirteen
globallythreatenedspeciesofbird.ItisanimportantnestingandbreedingsiteforGreat
WhitePelicans,andisthemostimportantfeedingareaforlesserflamingosintheworld.The
systemishometogloballyimportantpopulationsofBlack-neckedGrebe,African
Spoonbill,PiedAvocet,LittleGrebe,Yellow-billedStork,Black-wingedStilt,Grey-headed
GullandGull-billedTern.
TheKenyaLakesystemisakeylocationontheWestAsian-EastAfricanFlyway,aroute
followedbyhugenumbersofbirdsintheirannualmigrationfrombreedinggroundsinthe
northtowinteringplacesinAfrica.Thelandsaroundthelakesincludelargepopulationsof
blackrhino,Rothschild'sgiraffe,greaterkudu,lion,cheetahandwilddogs.TheKenyaLake
systemissurroundedbythesteepescarpmentoftheRiftValley.OtherlakesareLakeChew
Bahir,inthenortheastextension.ThislakeliesmainlyinEthiopiabutextendsintoKenyain
therainyseason.LakeKamnarokisanothersmalllake.
RiftValleylakes
EasternRiftValleylakesarelocatedwithinKenyaandTanzania,whilethenorthernRiftValleylakes
arelocatedinEthiopia.SouthoftheEthiopianhighlands,theriftvalleysplitsintotwomajortroughs.
TheEasternRiftishometotheKenyanRiftValleylakes,whilemostoftheCentralAfricanRiftValley
lakeslieintheWesternRift.TheKenyansectionoftheRiftValleyishometoeightlakes,ofwhich3
arefreshwaterandtherestalkaline.Ofthelatter,theshallowsodalakesoftheEasternRiftValley
havecrystallisedsaltturningtheshoreswhite,andarefamousforthelargeflocksofflamingothat
feedoncrustaceans.2Thedetailsofthelakesareshownbelow.
•
LakeTurkana(6405km²,elevation360m,freshwater)isthelargestoftheKenyanlakes,onthe
borderofKenyaandEthiopia.
•
LakeLogipiisashallowhot-springfedsodalakeintheSugutaValleyjustsouthofLakeTurkana.
•
LakeBaringo(80sqmiles,elevation1000m)freshwater,secondlargestoftheKenyanRiftValley
lakes.
•
LakeBogoria(34km²,elevation990m)shallowsodalake,anationalpreserve
•
LakeNakuru(40km²,elevation1759m)shallowsodalake,hasbeenanationalparksince1968
•
LakeElmenteita,shallowsodalake
•
LakeNaivasha(160km²–variessomewhatwithrainfall,elevation1,890m),freshwaterlake,is
thehighestinthisgroup.
•
LakeMagadi,shallowsodalakenearthesouthernborderwithTanzania.
TheTanzaniansectionofthisgrouphasalkalinelakes:
•
Lake Natron, shallow soda lake which has categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as the East
Africanhalophyticsecoregion.
•
LakeManyara,
•
LakeEyasi,shallowsodalake
•
LakeMakati,shallowsodalake
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rift_Valley_lakes
ProtectedareasandmountainsinKenya
ThemainprotectedareasinKenyaincludethecountry’snationalparks,namelyTsavo
NationalPark,theMaasaiMara,MarsabitGameReserve,TurkanaGameReserve,Meru
NationalPark,andpartsofAmboseliNationalPark.TheInternationalUnionforthe
ConservationofNature(IUCN)CategoryVImanagedresource–protectedareasincludeparts
ofTsavoEast,SamburuGameReserve,andTanaRiverGameReserve;otherIUCNareas
includethosearoundMountKenyaandMountElgoninthecentralandwesternpartsofthe
country,respectively,thesoutherntipoftheKenya–Somaliaborder,Samburuinthemid
northregion,andpartsofSouthRift.Waterandbiodiversityfromprotectedareascan
contributetoadaptationtoclimatechangethroughinterventionssuchastheuseof
irrigationagricultureandgeneticmaterialsfromthewildinbreedingforadaptationtothe
adverseeffectsofclimatechange.However,amajorityofthecountryisnotprotected,
whichimpliesthatspeciesofecologicalimportance,includingtheendangeredones,thatfall
insuchareasaresusceptibletodestructivehumanactivities(Waithujuetal,2013:193).
Naturalresourcedepletion,disasters,landdegradationandwater
issues
Thecountry’srenewablenaturalresourcesconstituteitsmaineconomicassetandtheframeworkfor
both agricultural production and tourism, making environmental conservation a priority for
sustainableruraldevelopment(RuralPortalKenya,n.d.).
Galanairrigationproject
Theimpactsofuncontrolledandcorruption-linkedmasslogginghasnowresultedin
mountaincatchmentsthatdonotfunctionproperlyanylonger.Pearce(2015)reporteda
discussionwithaKenyanAgriculturalMinistry,whichreportedthatoneofitsflagship
irrigationschemes,the1544mile2Galanaproject,couldbeallbutmoribundwhenitopens
laterthisyearbecauseofalackofwater.TheRiverTana,whichdrainsfromtheAberdares
watertower,wascarryingsolittlewaterthattheproject’scanals,plannedtodrawwater
fromtheTana,wouldbeabletoirrigateonly2%ofthefieldsduetobecultivatedaspartof
theproject.Also,theonce-perennialriverEwasoNgiro,whichdrainsfromMountKenya,
andwatersthepasturesofcattle-herdinggroupsliketheSamburu,nowregularlyrunsdry
foraround100daysayear.Pearcestatesthatprotectingthewatertowersisvital.Without
them,Kenyawouldbelittlemorethandesert.Governmentcorruptionandcorruptsenior
officialsisbehindtheillegalannexureofforestedhillsidesforfarmlandandtimber(Pearce,
2015).
Atthesametime,clearingforestforfarmingandchoppingtreesforcharcoalproductionwas
fullyunderway,withmorethan14000charcoalkilnsintheforestsoftheAberdares(Pearce
2015).
Issuesofenvironmentaldegradation-Landdegradationisamajorthreattoecosystemfunctioning
in the areas classified as having both high and low agricultural potential in Kenya. More recent
studies extrapolating on local findings of spatial and temporal patterns estimate that land
degradationisincreasinginseverityandextentinmanyareasofthecountryandthatover20%ofall
cultivatedareas,30%offorests,and10%ofgrasslandsaresubjecttodegradation(Waswa,2012).
Classification of Landsat imagery for the period 1973, 1988 and 2003 showed that there were
significantchangesinlanduselandcover(LULC)inthewesternKenyadistrictswiththeareaunder
agricultural activities increasing from 28% in 1973 to 70% in 2003 while those under wooded
grassland decreasing from 51% to 11% over the same period. Detailed field observations and
measurements showed that over 55% of the farms sampled lacked any form of soil and water
conservationtechnologies.Sheeterosionwasthemostdominantformofsoillossobservedinover
70%ofthefarms(Waswa,2012).
Unfortunately, the areas, which experience the highest degradation risk, coincide with the most
productive areas in the country. These areas include the Central Kenya Highlands, the eastern
DistrictsofMachakos,KituiandEmbu,WesternKenya,theLakeVictoriabasinandsomepartsofthe
coastal zone. These areas also continue to experience increased fragmentation and deforestation
due to increasing pressure for new cultivation and grazing lands as well as for settlement. Land
scarcityhascausedincreasedmigrationofpeopletothefragilearidandsemi-aridareasinsearchof
land for cultivation and settlement. Cultivation of such arid areas characterized by little and
unreliablerainfallresultsinfrequentcropfailuresandleavesmostofthelandbareforlongperiods
henceincreasingthevulnerabilityofthelandtosoilerosion(Waswa,2012:1-2).
International treaties - Kenya is a signatory to the UN Convention on Combatting Desertification
(UNCCD), yet over the years, the administration and management of land in Kenya have been
challengingbecauseofthelackofacomprehensivenationallandpolicy,worsenedbytheexistence
ofmanydifferentlandlaws,someofwhichareconflicting.Thishasledtofragmentationoftheland,
breakdown in land administration, and disparities in land ownership. Other challenges include
deterioration of land quality, squatting, landlessness, underuse and abandonment of agricultural
land, tenure insecurity, and conflict. There is no adequate monitoring of many of the land
degradation issues both at national and local scale in Kenya (Waswa, 2012). To address these
challenges, the Government of Kenya has developed policies and legal and institutional reforms
regardingthesecurityoflandtenure,landuseanddevelopment,andsustainableconservationofthe
environment(Waithukuetal,2013:191).
Water - Kenya is a water-scarce country by global standards. Factors such as soil erosion, which
makeslandlessproductiveandcontributestosiltbuild-upinmajorreservoirs,affecttheabilityof
peopletoobtainwaterforagriculture.Accesstowaterandsoilfertilitymaintenancearecriticalfor
thelivelihoodsofruralpoorpeopleandarethekeytodevelopmentinKenya.Onlyabout46%of
ruralpeoplehaveaccesstocleanwater.Inrecentdecades,degradationofthenaturalresourcebase
has intensified. The pace of deforestation, soil erosion and domestic and industrial pollution has
quickened.Thepastthreedecadesofoverexploitationandencroachmenthaveshrunkthecountry’s
forest cover, now occupying only 2 per cent of the land. All of these factors have contributed to
declining water catchment capacity and more severe flood and drought conditions. This, together
withagrowingpopulation,meansthatpercapitawateravailabilityinKenyaisonlyaboutonetenth
thatoftheneighbouringEastAfricancountriesofUgandaandtheUnitedRepublicofTanzania.
Disasters – Kenya’s disasters are linked to droughts, floods and epidemics. Kenya has a draft
National Disaster Risk management Policy which integrates disaster risk management in planning
andbudgeting(Hyogo,Kenya,2015).
Climatechangeprojections,vulnerablesectorsandimpacts
Climatechangeprojections-WidespreadwarminghasbeenobservedoverKenyasince1960.There
is little projected precipitation data available for Kenya, as downscaled predictions for rainfall are
difficulttomodel,butthereissomelimitedevidencefordecreasingprecipitationbetween1960and
2003,theperiodforwhichsomedataisavailable.FortheA1BSCRESemissionsscenarioprojections
for temperature increases over Kenya, show good agreement between the CMIP3 ensemble
members. The CMIP33 model ensemble projects strong precipitation increases over East Africa, in
particular Kenya, with increases of over 20% projected with strong agreement across the CMIP3
models(UKMetoffice,n.d.).OtherstudieshaveshownthatfuturewarmingwillintensifytheinterannualvariabilityofEastAfrica’srainfalltherebyimpactingonhowlandisused(Wolffetal.2011,
citedinWaswa,212).
The Kenyan National Climate Change Action Plan (2013 – 2017) (Kenyan NCCAP, 2013) states that
rainfalltrendsshowmixedsignalswithsomelocationsindicatingtrendstowardswetterconditions
in recent years, but the majority of locations are not showing any significant trends. The annual
rainfallshowseitherneutralorslightlydecreasingtrendsduetoageneraldeclineinthelongrains
seasonthatextendsfromMarchtoMay.TheshortrainsseasonbetweenOctoberandDecember,on
theotherhand,showsapositivetrendinsomelocations.
Vulnerable sectors - The majority of global- and regional-scale studies generally project yield
declines with climate change for Kenya’s most important staple crops, maize and beans. Several
global-scalestudiesprojectthatKenyacouldfaceincreasinglyseriousfoodsecurityissuesoverthe
next 40 years (UK Met Office, n.d.). Kenya is currently a country of moderately high levels of
undernourishment.
Kenya’s tourism industry depends on wildlife populations that are highly susceptible to climate
variabilityandchange(NationalClimateChangeActionPlan,2010).
Water-RecentanalysisofKenya’scurrentwaterresourceshasshownitisexposedtoahighwater
securitythreatacrossitsentirearea.Futurewateravailabilityisuncertain,withpotentialincreasesin
annualrun-offmaskingoverallreductionsinwateravailabilityduringcertainperiods,whilestudies
neglect the lack of infrastructure to store water. There are currently large uncertainties remain in
3
CMIP3referstoaclimatemodelcomparisonproject,nowatphase3,calledtheCoupledModel
IntercomparisonProject(CMIP3).
global-,regional-andnational-scaleprojectionsoffuturewaterstressanddroughtforthecountry,
and as such, knowledge is little improved beyond that reported in the IPCC AR4. Simulations from
the AVOID programme project that climate change generally has a minor impact on water stress
beyond2030inKenya,andthatsomepartsofthecountrymayexperienceadecreasewithclimate
changefrom2050onward(UKMetOffice,n.d.).National-scalestudieshighlighttheimportanceof
water storage in ameliorating and managing the impact of future climate change on the country’s
crops.
Theenergysectorlargelydependsonhydro-powerwhichcontributesabout50%ofthetotalnational
energy production. This sector has already been impacted by droughts and unreliable rainfall
(NationalClimateChangeActionPlan,2010).
Conventiononclimatechange(UNFCCC)-KenyaisasignatorytotheUNFCCC(signed12Jun1992,
ratified30Aug1994andenteredintoforce28Nov1994).Kenyarecognisesthatitsvulnerability,as
in other developing countries, is their dependence on climate sensitive natural resources for our
livelihoodsandeconomicsustenance(NationalClimateChangeActionPlan2013–2017).National
Climate Change Response Strategy (NCCRS) in 2010 to investigate vulnerability in the country and
potentialfutureresponses,aswellasaNationalClimateChangeActionPlan(2013).
Sustainabledevelopmentchallenges
SustainabledevelopmentplanningforKenyawillhavetoaddresstheimpactsofclimatechangeon
thecountry’ssocio-economicgrowth,properplanningandimplementationofactionsarenecessary.
Such measures should include appropriate adaptation to enhance the country’s capacity to cope
with the impacts of climate change and build resilience, as well as development choices that
minimizecarbonemissions.
From the National Climate Change Action Plan (2013), the authors state that Kenya’s Vision 2030
document will be the long-term development blueprint for the country – aims to transform Kenya
into“anewlyindustrialising,middle-incomecountryprovidingahighqualityoflifetoallitscitizens
inacleanandsecureenvironment.”Alowcarbonclimateresilientdevelopmentpathway,assetout
in this National Climate Change Action Plan (NCCAP), can help meet Vision 2030’s goals through
actionsthataddressbothsustainabledevelopmentandclimatechange.Thispathwaycanalsohelp
the Government achieve the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and other internationally
agreed development goals without compromising the environment and the natural resource base
(KenyaNCCAP,2013).
Climate change is not only a threat to the achievement of sustainable development and poverty
reduction but has the potential to reverse the modest gains that Kenya has achieved towards
attaining the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Like many other sub-Saharan African
countries, Kenya faces multiple pressures from population dynamics, land degradation and climate
changewhichcombinetounderminepovertyalleviation,socialdevelopmentandeconomicgrowth
efforts. The pressure of a rapidly growing population, combined with erratic rainfall patterns,
increasestheriskofdisasters,foodinsecurityandenvironmentaldegradation.Addressingpopulation
dynamicsandclimatechangetogetherneedstobecomeatopdevelopmentpriorityforKenya.Joint
investment in family planning and climate change strategies will help to preserve the environment
andnaturalresources,andreducepovertyandinequalitiesbyloweringthechilddependencyburden
and creating more livelihood and investment opportunities for women, families and communities
(AFIDEPandPAI(2012).
Summaryofsocialchallenges
•
Addressing population growth and climate change together should be a top development
priorityifKenyaistoachievesustainabledevelopmentgoals
Summaryofeconomicchallenges
•
Growing the economy in difficult economic times, especially to provide jobs for a huge young
population presently being support by a smaller group of working people (World Bank report,
Kenya,2014).
•
Also,astheeconomybeginstogrowinthefuture,thepotentialforincreasinggreenhousegas
emissions and the need for renewable energy sources will become important in achieving
sustainabledevelopment.Transitioningtoalowcarbonclimateresilientdevelopmentpathway
will reduce the country’s vulnerability to climate risks and improve Kenya’s ability to prosper
under a changing climate while contributing towards the global efforts to reduce greenhouse
gases(GHG)emissions(NationalClimateChangeActionPlan,2010:1).
Summaryofenvironmentalchallenges
•
EnvironmentalissuesinKenyaincludedeforestation,soilerosion,desertification,watershortage
anddegradedwaterquality,flooding,poaching,anddomesticandindustrialpollution.
Summary
Selectedsocial,economicandenvironmentalindicators:Kenya
Indicator
Score/comment
DevelopmentStatusofcountry(LeastDevelopedStatus,UN)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_developed_country#Africa_.2834_co
untries
KenyaisnotconsideredaLDC
StatusontheFSI2014
http://ffp.statesindex.org/
FSIscore99.0.
Inthe‘Alert’categoryofrisk
HumanDevelopmentstatus2014
Rank 145,
Development
Population size (UNDP HDI Report, 2014), 2050 and 2100 (World
PopulationReport,2014).
44.35 million (2014); 99 million
(2050)and159(2100)
Populatiogrowthrate(averageannualpercent)(2010-2015)***
2.11%
Low
Human
Contraceptiveprevalencerate***
45%
Changesinpercentofpopulationlivinginurbanareasbetween1990and
2050
http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf (page
20)
1990 = 17%; 2014 = 25.0 %
urbanand2050=44%urban.
Percent of the population living on degraded land
(http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/population-living-degraded-land)
31percent
%arableland(orlandundercultivation)*
48.2
Population/haarableland
0.13***
Populationlivinginpoverty(percentageofpopulationbelowthepoverty
line,2012)#
43.4
Populationlivinginmultidimensionalpoverty(UNDPHDIReport,2014)
48.19%
Majorinfectiousdiseases(2013):***
Degreeofrisk:high
Landunderconservation(%surfacearea)(2010)***
11.74%
Threatenedspecies(2012)
346
Forestedarea(%oftotallandarea)(2010)
6%
Percentageoftotalwaterused(2005)***
8.9%
Carbonemissionspercapita(tonnes)**
0.3
Structureoftheeconomy2010(relianceonagriculture)
Services sector makes up more
then 3/4 of the economy,
agriculture 15 %. 80% of
workforce in subsistence
agriculture
Typesofnaturalhazards***
Recurring drought, flooding
duringrainyseasons
Climatechangeprojections
Warmingtrendalreadyevident,
rainfall patterns complex, not
yetclearwhatfuturetrendsfor
differentregions
*http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS
**http://www.prb.org/pdf06/06WorldDataSheet.pdf
***http://www.indexmundi.com/kenya/demographics_profile.html
****http://www.uneca.org/oria/pages/kenya
References
ByersB(2011).KenyaTropicalForestandBiodiversityAssessment,September2011.
ProducedbytheUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment.Sourcedonlineat
http://www.brucebyersconsulting.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/Kenya-TropicalForest-and-Biodiversity-Assessment-Sept-2011.pdf
CIA(2015).Kenya.CentralIntelligenceAgency,USA.https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/theworld-factbook/geos/ke.html
EasternArcMountains(2015).EcosystemServicesintheEasternArcMountainsofTanzania.Sourced
onlineathttp://www.naturalcapitalproject.org/where/tanzania.html
Economywatch(2010).KenyaEconomicStructure.Date:5April2010.Sourcedonlineat
http://www.economywatch.com/world_economy/kenya/structure-of-economy.html
FenglerW.(2010).DemographicTransitionandGrowthinKenya.April28,2010).Sourcedonlineat
http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/opinion/2010/04/28/demographic-transition-growth-kenya
FSI(2014).FragileStatesIndex.Sourcedonlineathttp://ffp.statesindex.org/
HDI(2014).HumanDevelopmentReport.UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP).
Sourcedonlineathttp://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf
IMF(2014).Kenya’sEconomyContinuestoGrowinaChallengingEnvironment.June2014.
InternationalMonetaryFundonlinearticle.Sourcedat
http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kenya/publication/kenya-economic-update-economy-facingheadwinds-2014-special-focus-delivering-primary-healthcare-services
KoneckyB.,RusselJ.,HuangY.,VuilleM.,CohenL.,Street-PerrotFA(2014).Impactofmonsoons,
temperature,andCO2ontherainfallandecosystemsofMt.KenyaduringtheCommonEra.
Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology,Palaeoecology,Volume396,15February2014,Pages17-25
NationalClimateChangeActionPlan.2013–2017(2010).RepublicofKenya.http://cdkn.org/wpcontent/uploads/2013/03/Kenya-National-Climate-Change-Action-Plan.pdf
NBSAPKenya(2000).ASummaryoftheKenyanNationalBiodiversityStrategyandActionPlan.
RepublicofKenya,MinistryforEnvironmentandNaturalResources.Sourcedonline
http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ke/ke-nbsap-01-en.pdf
Netfund(2011).BiodiversityconservationinKenya.InstituteofEconomicAffairs,Kenya.Sourced
onlineatnetfund.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Biodiversity-Management-in-Kenya.pdf
NgayuM.(2011).SustainableUrbanCommunities:ChallengesandOpportunitiesinKenya’sUrban
Sector.InternationalJournalofHumanitiesandSocialSciences:1(4),April2011.
RuralPortalKenya(n.d.).Kenya.Sourcedonlineat
http://www.ruralpovertyportal.org/country/geography/tags/kenya
SchoorlJ.M.,VeldkampAl,ClaessensL.,VanGorpW.(2014).Edificegrowthandcollapseofthe
PlioceneMt.Kenya:Evidenceoflargescaledebrisavalanchesonahighaltitudeglaciatedvolcano.
GlobalandPlanetaryChange,Volume123,PartA,December2014,Pages44-54
J.M.Schoorl,A.Veldkamp,L.Claessens,W.vanGorp,J.R.Wijbrans
StateofKenyanEconomy(2011).StateoftheKenyanEconomy.Sourcedonlineat
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/Resources/257994-1335471959878/KEUDec_2011_State_of_Kenya_Economy.pdf
UKMetOffice(n.d.).Climate:Observations,projectionsandimpacts:Kenya.UnitedKingdom
MeteorologicalOffice.Sourcedonlineathttp://www.metoffice.gov.uk/media/pdf/b/j/Kenya.pdf
WaswaB.S.(2012).AssessmentofLandDegradationPatternsinWesternKenya:Implicationsfor
RestorationandRehabilitation.Inaugural-DissertationzurErlangungdesGradesDoktorder
Agrarwissenschaften(Dr.agr.).http://hss.ulb.uni-bonn.de/2012/3077/3077.pdf
YinS.andKentM.(n.d.).Kenya:TheDemographicsofaCountryinTurmoil.Sourcedonlineat
http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2008/kenya.aspx