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Transcript
The Gross Morbid Anatomy of Diseases of Animals C.L. Davis DVM Foundation Armed Forces Institute of Pathology Washington, DC 9-13 April 2001 Gross Pathology of Zoo Animals Michael Garner, DVM, DACVP Introduction Is zoo pathology unique? Certainly there are diseases that are peculiar to certain species or classes of animals, and these require familiarity with the literature and knowledge of disease dynamics within zoo populations; but in the overall scheme of things, zoo pathology does not differ that much from domestic species pathology. There are numerous diseases that relate to various aspects of zoo husbandry, nutrition and genetics. Degenerative and neoplastic diseases are common because the animals often live longer than in their native environments. There are a wide variety of infectious diseases that also occur. Of course, there are also the bizarre or rare cases, but these lectures will attempt to concentrate on distinct “entities” and disease trends. So while not comprehensive, the following information represents material from the literature and the files of Northwest ZooPath that is considered most important in the zoo community and most likely to be encountered by diagnostic pathologists. Mammals Noninflammatory Cardiopulmonary and Vascular Disease Cardiomyopathy Primates, bats, possums, hedgehogs, ferrets, giant anteaters Etiopathogenesis usually unclear: genetics, nutrition, degenerative change, previous infectious events “dilated/hypertrophic, left/right/biventricular cardiomyopathy”, “myocardial fibrosis” may also see signs of left sided cardiac insufficiency in lung “brown lung” Right sided cardiac insufficiency in abdominal cavity, ascites, hepatomegaly Gross: Myocardial hypertrophy or atrophy, possible pale streaks Histo: Myocardiocyte hypertrophy, atrophy, disarray, necrosis. Interstitial fibrosis. Interstitial lipidosis, valvular endocardiosis. Atherosclerosis Predominantly primates Gross: Intimal plaques in great vessels “atheromatous plaque” Histo: xanthomatous inflammation, mineralization, necrosis in the intima and/media Also glomerular atherosclerosis red and black howlers Dissecting aortic aneurisms Gorillas Etiopathogenesis not well understood Usually in older gorillas Gross: Severe enlargement of aorta, generally extending several centimeters from the heart base, massive hemorrhage in the cardiac outflow tract/mediastinum, cardiac tamponade Histo: In early stages, mucinous degeneration of the media. Later stages dissecting hemorrhage of the media. Cutaneous vasculopathy of Black rhinoceros Etiopathogenesis not well understood Infectious and immune mediated causes proposed Lesions morphologically resemble hemorrhagic puerperal of horses Gross: Ulcerative necrohemorrhagic dermatitis with edema, primarily limbs. Histo: acute-fibrinoid necrosis of vessel walls with thrombosis, edema and hemorrhage. Chronic-organized thrombi, granulation tissue, hemosiderosis. Thrombosis of the splenic vein in llamas Recently described in 10 llamas necropsied for other reasons, and considered an incidental finding of undetermined etiology. May have some potential for causing serious splenic disease. Degenerative Disease Chronic renal disease Cats, primates, ruminants, hedgehogs Common, age-related. If seen in younger animals, possibly preceded by infectious, or toxic insult Gross: overall shrinkage, pitting, streaks, cysts “ chronic interstitial nephritis”, “nephrosclerosis with cysts” Histo: nephrosclerosis, interstitial nephritis, tubular cysts, protein casts, mineralization, may see amyloid in some species, especially cats and ruminants previous Degenerative arthritis, spondylosis, discs Ruminants, primates, large felids, canids Common, age-related. If seen in younger animals, possible preceded by trauma, infectious events, nutritional problems Gross: “degenerative arthritis”, “degenerative disc disease”, “prolapsed disc” Ankylosis, exostoses, eburnation of cartilage, thickened joint capsules Flattened, mineralized or prolapsed intervertebral discs Histo: fibrocartilaginous or Osteocartilagenous exostoses, capsular fibrosis, nonsuppurative synovitis, cartilaginous erosions, vertebral lesions sometimes associated with neuraxonal degeneration in the cord. Periarticular hyperostosis and chronic renal disease in black lemurs Familial, progressive lesions from 3 – 27 years of age Subperiosteal reactive bone in metaphyseal regions of long bones Chronic interstitial nephritis. Should be differentiated from diaphyseal hyperostosis seen in ruffed lemurs No periarticular involvement Spontaneously resolves Also differentiate multifocal pyogranulomatous osteomyelitis (lytic, not proliferative Cirrhosis somewhat common, seen sporadically in all species etiology multifactorial: Aging, biliary obstruction, previous toxins or viral infection, long term hepatocellular lipidosis (endocrine, metabolic or nutritional) Gross: “cirrhosis” Shrunken and scarred hepatic lobes, pale parenchyma, sometimes cysts, or dark regenerative nodules Histo: portal bridging fibrosis, biliary hyperplasia, hepatocellular lipidosis or vacuolar degeneration, usually some nonsuppurative inflammation in portal regions, cholestasis, regenerative nodules, may also see concurrent hepatomas or primary hepatic malignancies. Deposition and Storage Diseases Amyloid Systemic amyloidosis Somewhat common in mammals Etiopathogenesis not well understood: inflammation, wasting, stress, genetics Mostly reactive systemic amyloidosis, Primates (callitrichids), felids (cheetah, tiger ), mongoose, macropods (kangaroos and wallabies), bats, armadillo, Ruminants (Speke’s Gazelle, Kudu, goats) Renal interstitium and glomeruli, liver, adrenal, lung, blood vessels, spleen Gross: may be generalized organ enlargement, pale discoloration “hepatomegaly with pallor” Histo: Homogenous eosinophilic material replaces normal tissue architecture, Stains orange with Congo red. Islet amyloidosis Amyloid polypeptide secreted by islet cells Usually incidental finding, but can cause diabetes mellitus when severe Felids, primates (baboon, mangabey, macaque), degus, Prevost’s squirrels, procyonids (raccoons, coatimundis), mongoose Gross: Typically no gross lesions in the pancreas, lesions may be due to secondary (type II) diabetes mellitus, fatty liver, emaciation, chronic renal disease etc Histo: Homogenous eosinophilic material in regions of islets, may extend into the parenchyma in advanced cases, orange with Congo red stain. Mineral There are two common types of soft tissue mineralization of significance to pathologists: Dystrophic mineralization – occurs following degeneration of tissue. Vitamin E deficiency Saponification of fat Chronic irritation or cellulitis Metastatic mineralization – occurs when there are metabolic derangements leading to imbalances in calcium, phosphorous or vitamin D renal disease: secondary renal hyperparathyroidism imbalances in dietary calcium/phosphorous/vitamin D: secondary nutritional hyperparathyroidism PTH or PTH-like hormone producing lesions Parathyroid and other neoplastic processes. It is not always clear which type of process leads to soft tissue mineralization, and possibly dystrophic and metastatic mineralization occur together in some conditions. Soft tissue mineralization is occasionally seen in mammals, usually due to chronic renal disease, chronic inflammatory conditions (especially tuberculosis) Ruminants, primates, Mineralization of the heart seems to be an entity in Guinea pigs and prairie dogs Cutaneous mineralization in naked mole rats Gross: soft tissues are mottled with firm tan/white coalescing foci. Kidney, lung, great vessels, skin. Histo: Basophilic granular material in affected tissue. Stains black or dark brown with Von Kossa Tumoral calcinosis or pseudogout: described in primates, dogs, rabbits, uromastyx and chelonians. Ultrastructural and chemical analysis indicate hydroxyapatite or calcium pyrophosphate deposition. The pathogenesis is unknown. Usually involves soft tissues of spine and appendages. The lesions differ morphologically and radiographically from those of gout or metastatic mineralization. Urate deposits of gout are generally less radiodense, occur within the joint rather than in the soft tissues, and have a more crystalline, less mineralized matrix. Metastatic mineralization typically involves viscera, skeletal and smooth muscle and vessels, but often spares the ligaments and joint capsules. Gross: nodular white foci in joints or periarticular soft tissues “pseudogout” Histo: mineralization, fibrosis, osseous metaplasia, tendons and joint capsules Pneumoconiosis pneumoconiosis is seen in mammals and birds In zoo mammals it is most often seen primates, but also cats, ruminants, hedgehogs. Accumulations of inorganic dusts in lung: silicas, iron, plant material, others. Implies exposure to a dusty, smoky or polluted environment Usually incidental Gross, small black spots in the pulmonary parenchyma. Histo: accumulations of refractile particles in the cytoplasm of macrophages around bronchioles and blood vessels adjacent to bronchioles. In extreme cases can get associated fibrosis and emphysema Lipid Lipid deposition is most common in the Liver “hepatic lipidosis” Also less so in kidney, adrenal Etiopathogenesis is complex and multifactorial. Can be seen with anorexia, malnutrition, obesity, endocrine and metabolic derangements, some toxins. Can also be a normal physiologic process in some species, particularly reptiles and some fish (elasmobranchs- sharks and skates) Primates, felids, hedgehogs, ferrets, guinea pigs, chinchillas. Gross: enlarged, tan, friable, with rounded edges Histo: Hepatocellular swelling with single or multiple clear spherical vacuoles that displace the nucleus. Needs to be distinguished from hydropic degeneration associated with metabolic derangements, in which hepatocytes are swollen but with a” ground glass” appearance, less nuclear displacement and occasional nuclear shrinkage or pyknosis. Endogenous lipid pneumonia common in mustelids, procyonids, canids, felids. Also common in camelids Etiology undetermined, incidental finding. Iron Hemochromatosis: In humans, a genetic disease, but term is used in veterinary medicine, usually when there is evidence of pathology associated with iron deposition Hemosiderosis: used when iron pigment is present but with little or no pathologic change. Concurrent diseases, aging, wasting Iron storage disease probably a better term In mammals, primates seem most affected, particularly callitrichids, lemurs and gorillas. Also, rhinos, many species of ruminants, felids, procyonids, fur seals, pika, rock hyrax, house shrew. Liver most affected tissue. Also gut, spleen, kidney, heart and pancreas Etiopathogenesis: high dietary iron, increased sensitivity to absorption of dietary iron. Iron sequestration due to chronic disease less important, not as severe. Gross: copper or bronze colored swollen liver. Sometimes some scarring and cirrhotic appearance. Histo: Yellow/gold pigment in cytoplasm of hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, renal tubular epithelium splenic reticular cells, myocardiocytes, pancreatic acinar cells. In hemochromatosis, liver has bridging fibrosis, biliary hyperplasia, hepatocellular cytomegalic and karyomegalic change, some necrosis. Can be confused with copper, bile, melanin, lipofuscin. Prussian blue stain to confirm. Melanin Melanin-related pigment disorders are uncommon in mammals. Dubin-Johnson like syndrome Golden lion tamarins, melanin pigment in liver, little or no pathology. Miscellaneous Gout: Uncommon in primates, rare in other mammals. Xanthomatosis: Possibly a dietary problem involving too much cholesterol. Common in meerkats, rare in others. Urolithiasis maned wolf, cystine clawed otters, oxalate, rabbits, guinea pigs: calcium carbonate giraffe Storage disorders: Very rare in exotic species, Muntjac, GM2 Gangliosidosis Anomalies Developmental anomalies and malformations occur in zoo animals with some frequency. Maintenance of stud books limits inbreeding, but the gene pool is limited for some species, such as cheetahs, Spekes Gazelles, Florida panthers etc. A complete review of anomalies in zoo species is beyond the scope of these notes, but reviews or partial reviews have been published by Leipold and Munson . Some cases seen at Northwest ZooPath or documented in the literature are listed below. Musk ox, valgus deformities Kangaroo, ureteral dilatation Polycystic kidney, pygmy hippo, emperor tamarin Renal dysplasia, paca Patent ductus arteriosus, atrial septal defect, bongo Ventricular septal defect, snow leopard, Sumatran tiger Intestinal diverticulum, Sumatran tiger Patent ductus arteriosus and vertebral malformation, reticulated giraffe Limb anomalies, reticulated giraffe Megaesophagus, Siberian tiger Cleft palate, golden lion tamarin Unilateral hydronephrosis, hedgehog Diaphragmatic hernia, red panda Bile duct aplasia, Speke’s Gazelle Small caudal cerebral fossae and cerebellar herniation in lions (possible role of vitamin A deficiency) Coloboma of Bengal tigers Immune dysfunction in cheetahs Dubin Johnson-Like syndrome in golden lion tamarins Familial periarticular hyperostosis and chronic renal disease in black lemurs Diaphragmatic hernia in golden lion tamarins Septate gall bladder in golden lion tamarin Cystine choleliths in golden lion tamarin. Facial and cephalic malformations, cleft palate, hydrocephalus, golden lion tamarins Complications of Restraint and Anesthesia Most common in mammals and birds In mammals, ruminants seem most susceptible. Aspiration pneumonia Complications due to anatomy (giraffes) Exertional rhabdomyopathy (capture myopathy) in artiodactylids Capture shock syndrome, ataxic myoglobinuric syndrome, ruptured muscle syndrome, delayed-peracute syndrome Idiosyncratic drug reactions Dart reactions (cellulitis) Marsupials prone to shock associated with any painful procedure (darts or injections) Leg, fascial and tooth Fractures, ruptured gut, drowning, fractured backs (rabbits) Fur-slip in chinchillas due to stress of handling Broken tail from restraint (spiney rat) Hypothermia in small rodents Hyperthermia in zebras, pinnipeds Chemical immobilization with ketamine or tiletamine not always well tolerated in pinnipeds and cetaceans. Penmate aggression in carnivores during recovery stage Convulsive seizures and mania in felids associated with ketamine Respiratory arrest in megavertebrates from postural abnormalities during anesthesia Metabolic/endocrine Disease: Follicular and colloid goiter/ hyperplasia of thyroid tissue Large cats Metabolic bone disease (fruit and vampire bats) Hepatic lipidosis Rumenitis (metabolic acidosis), giraffe, Gazelles, Springbok, Deer Urolithiasis (maned wolf, cystine; clawed otters, oxalate) Pregnancy toxemia in ruminants and guinea pigs Diabetes mellitus Pregnancy in primates Primates felids, procyonids with islet amyloid? Rock hyrax with islet fibrosis Ferrets with islet vacuolar degeneration (insulin antagonism/ adrenal tumor) Addison’s disease: Rare, NZP has 1 case in a skunk, 1 in Grey seal Ulcerative and vesicular dermatopathy in Black Rhinoceros Nutrtional Disease By far, in all animal classes held in zoological exhibits, the most common diseases relative to nutrition are inanition and obesity. Emaciation is particularly common in mixed or crowded exhibits, or in exhibits that are not closely monitored because of concerns for human intervention (breeding facilities). Obesity is becoming more of a problem, as well, as animals are living longer in captive environments, may get less exercise, and are often on a high (and not always correct) plane of nutrition. Additionally, highly specialized diets of some mammals, particular insectivores and marsupials, pose unique challenges for zoo nutritionists. Nutritional/metabolic bone disease (fibrous osteodystrophy) Common in all classes Usually associated with secondary renal or nutrtional hyperparathyroidism Normal or inverted Ca:P Imbalances in dietary Ca, P, Vit D, concurrent renal disease New world monkeys, mostly juveniles (Can‘t synthesize D3) Fibrous osteodystrophy of jaws and facial bones Rickets: bowing of long bones, widened metaphysis Ruminants, esp. kudus, mandibular fibrous osteodystrophy (“ossifying fibroma”) Monotremes and marsupials: rickets in young possums kept indoors Osmotic diarrhea in echidnas due to high cows mild diet. Bats: fruit bats and vampires. Scurvy Primates, “Big head” hematomas and new bone formation over the calvarium Metaphyseal fractures, blunting of growth plate spicules guinea pigs, muscle hemorrhage, swollen epiphysis, esp. costochondral, sternum Vitamin E/selenium deficiency Owl monkeys (hemolytic anemia, myopathy) Black Rhinoceros (hemolytic anemia) Ruminants “white muscle disease” Bats cardiomyopathy (see cardiovascular disease) Small marsupials, myopathy Hypervitaminosis D Not common in mammals Pacas and agoutis with access to monkey chow Suspect cases in naked mole rats Soft tissue mineralization Widening and increased basophilia in osteoid seams Hypovitaminosis A Lions, Arnold- Chiari-like syndrome Small caudal cerebral fossae, cerebellar herniation, hydrocephalus Meningeal fibrosis, thinning, gliosis of cerebellar folia with fibrous astrocytosis Mild neuraxonal degeneration. Hypervitaminosis A Carnivorous marsupials Malocclusion in lagomorphs and rodents Diet, genetics, lack of roughage Thiamine deficiency Pinnipeds on fish based diets, polioencephalomalacia Hyponatremia Pinnipeds associated with stressors of captivity (molt, poor nutrition) Na 120 –147 mEq/L (N = 150-160 mEq/L Lesions may occur following rapid intravenous fluid for correction of hyponatremia CNS lesions Flourosis in Egyptian fruit bats and Grey headed flying foxes Hyperostotic bone lesions, limbs, ribs, sternum, mandible . Superficial necrolytic dermatopathy Black rhinoceros, amino acid deficiency? Peracute mortality in giraffes Pathogenesis of this condition is not well understood. Only common lesions atrophy of fat pulmonary edema, serosal petechiae and GI ulcerations Copper deficiency: blesbok and sable antelope Possible Molybdenum antagonism Neoplastic and Proliferative Disorders Sporadic neoplasia involving any body system can be seen in all species. Published or observed trends are emphasized. Primates Colonic adenocarcinoma associated with chronic ulcerative colitis, cotton-top tamarin Endocrine neoplasms in callitrichids, pheochromocytoma, thyroid adenoma, pituitary adenoma Hepatic myelolipoma in Goeldi’s Biliary adenocarcinoma in lemurs with hemochromatosis Lymphoproliferative disorders in macaques with SIV Retroperitoneal fibromatosis, subcutaneous fibrosarcomas in macaques with Type D retrovirus Lymphoma, cotton-top tamarin, common marmoset, Epstein Barr virus Lymphoma, callitrichids, owl monkey, spider money, howler, Herpes Saimiri (latent in squirrel monkey) Lymphoma, owl monkey, H. ateles (latent in spider monkeys) Mustelids Ferrets Islet cell adenoma/carcinoma Adrenal cortical adenoma./carcinoma Preputial gland adenocarcinoma Mammary gland adenocarcinoma Hemangiosarcoma, spleen, abdominal viscera Cutaneous leiomyosarcoma, erector pili origin Chordoma (usually tip of tail) Biliary cysts in domestic and black footed ferrets Ursids Biliary adenocarcinomas, especially Asian bears (sun bears and sloth bears) Environmental, dietary, hereditary factors and aflatoxins have been proposed Felids Hepatic and splenic myelolipomas in cheetahs Biliary cysts, cystadenomas and cystadenocarcinomas Smooth muscle tumors in the reproductive tract Mammary gland malignancies in cats with birth control implants Thyroid hyperplasia and adenomas Lymphoid malignancies Squamous cell carcinoma in snow leopards associated with cutaneous and oral papillomatosis Canids Dysgerminoma, maned wolf Koala Lymphoma. Retrovirus-associated Hedgehog Oral squamous cell carcinoma Mammary gland adenocarcinoma Lymphoid malignancies Cutaneous mast cell tumors Prairie dog and Prevost’s squirrel Odontoma Sea Lions Carcinoma of genital origin, associated with a herpesvirus Infectious and Inflammatory disease A comprehensive overview of infectious disease processes of nondomestic species is far beyond the scope of these notes. Only common entities are discussed here. Bacterial (Bacterial diseases, either primary or secondary, account for the greatest percentage of case submissions to Northwest ZooPath from all U.S. zoos.) Mycobacteriosis probably the most important bacterial diseases affecting zoo animals. Susceptible classes: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish Mammals: M. bovis, M. tuberculosis, M. avium, M. Kansasii, M, paratuberculosis, atypicals. There is considerable public health concern regarding mammalian mycobacteriosis due to zoonotic potential in humans, particularly those that are immunosuppressed. Tuberculosis Aggressive tuberculin skin testing and culling has limited incidence and spread, but sporadic and herd involvement still seen. Elephants, primates and ruminants most often affected. Less common in carnivores. Gross: multiple, variably sized, white to tan raised nodules in viscera, usually lung and lymph node. Histo: caseocalcareous granulomas. Organisms can be hard to find. We like Fite’s acid fast stain Johne’s Disease (M. paratuberculosis) High morbidity and variable mortality in zoo ruminants. Clinical presentation is diarrhea and wasting For screening best to use multiple diagnostic technique to optimize diagnostic sensitivity Serology (CF, AGID, ELISA), culture, biopsy, PCR Gross: diffusely thickened and corrugated intestine, enlarged pale mesenteric nodes Histo: diffuse histiocytic inflammation (rather than granulomas), organisms numerous w/AF Yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis) Y. pseudotuberculosis, Y enterocolitica Primarily a problem with birds, ruminants and primates. Particularly susceptible mammals: prosimians and monkeys, Hyraxes, mara, chinchilla, ruminants Sporadic but can have significant outbreaks. Route of infection is oral, so initial lesion is suppurative or ulcerative enteritis, but rapidly disseminates to liver, spleen, lung, bone marrow. A low grade chronic form of enteritis with ill thrift has been described in domestic ruminants Gross: fibrinohemorrhagic to ulcerative enteritis with nodular white foci in distal small intestine or colon, miliary white, sometimes slightly raised foci in liver, spleen Histo: microabscesses with prominent colonies of gram negative bacilli. Plague Yersinia pestis Although sylvatic and domestic cycles occur in select areas of the United States, plague is rare in zoo populations Generally a rodent disease, transmitted between animals by infected fleas Tularemia Francisella tularensis Although sylvatic and domestic cycles occur in select areas of the United States, tularemia is rare in zoo populations Primarily rodents and rabbits infected, rarely see in captive primates Salmonellosis Salmonellosis is a significant problem in zoo mammalian collections Primates, ruminants, elephants, rhinos Primarily enteritis with septicemia. S. typhimurium, S. enteritidis Gross: ulcerative or fibrinonecrotic enteritis/enterocolitis Histo: deep ulceration with necrosis, thrombosis, fibrin deposition, usually numerous gram negative bacilli. Difficult to distinguish from other gram negative infections histologically. Need culture. Leptospirosis Leptospirosis is somewhat common in the zoo community Various serovars involved Rodent vectors Primates, ruminants, carnivores, marine mammals, and ironically some rodents Generally renal disease with hematuria. May have hepatic involvement, hemolysis, icterus. Rarely abortions. Diagnosis can be problematic Paired serology, Dark filed microscopy and PCR on urine, Histopathology, immunofluorescence on renal imprints, Immunohistochemistry, culture Gross: Red urine, icterus, possibly some renal swelling dark or tan discoloration, increased granular appearance to parenchyma. Histo: Acute cases can have little inflammation, some renal tubular necrosis and hepatic necrosis, cholestasis Chronic cases usually have severe lymphoplasmacytic tubulointerstitial nephritis. Organisms can be difficult to demonstrate with special stains (Warthin Starry or Steiner silver) Streptococcal infections Streptococcus pneumoniae is a common problem in the feeder rats and mice raised at zoos. Streptococcus zooepidemicus is a problem in primates and llamas, possibly also tapirs Also seen in shrews and callitrichids associated with uncooked horsemeat (mixed exhibits). S. Didelphis, possums Suppurative dermatitis, septicemia, hepatitis and hepatic fibrosis Staphylococcal infections Staphylococcal dermatitis (pyoderma) seen in a number of different zoo species. Pasteurellosis P. multocida is a significant pathogen of rabbits Upper and lower respiratory tract disease. Abscesses of skin, face, abdominal cavity, bone. Otitis media and meningitis. Acute septicemic form Diagnosis: Serology, culture and histopathology P. multocida is rarely seen as a cause of pneumonia in stressed young zoo ruminants Not as bad a problem as with domestic livestock P. multocida can cause sepsis is callitrichids, possibly from dental lesions and lingual gongylonemiasis Bordetella bronchiseptica Callitrichids, small carnivores, rodents, guinea pigs Bronchopneumonia We have a large outbreak of fatal pneumonia in Eastern grey squirrels from a rehab facility Sporadic cases in pet rodents, guinea pigs, feeder rodents at zoos. Klebsiella infections Klebsiella pneumoniae is an important opportunists in immunosuppressed patients. We see a fair amount of peritonitis in primates associated with this agent, esp. callitrichids Listeriosis L. monocytogenes Sporadic cases seen in primates, ruminants (particularly camelids) Helicobacter Helicobacter pylorus associated gastritis is a problem in several species of primates. Also seen in a number of different zoo carnivores: felids, canids, ursids Ferrets (H. mustelae) In addition to gastritis in this species, also associated with gastric lymphoma and adenocarcinoma Necrotic stomatitis Necrotic stomatitis a/w Fusobacterium, Bacteroides, Actinomyces, others Very common in macropods, aspiration pneumonia is fatal sequel. “lumpy jaw” Sporadic cases seen in zoo perrisodactylids and artiodactylids One outbreak in a colony of prairie dogs Clostridial infections Cl. botulinum (botulism) Uncommon in zoos Lions, feeding chicken Primates Mustelids (esp. ferrets and mink) Cl. tetani (tetanus) Uncommon in zoos Ruminants, macropods Cl. dificil Sporadic cases of antibiotic associated enterocolitis in zoo rodents/lagomorphs Cl. piliformis (Tyzzer’s disease) Snow leopard kittens Cl. perfringens Types A-E (enterotoxemia) Seen only sporadically in zoo ruminants Also see enterotoxemia/gastroenteritis in mustelids: Otters/black footed ferrets Chlamydiosis Chlamydia-associated disease in zoo mammals is uncommon. Koalas: C. pecorum and C. pneumoniaie Keratoconjunctivitis and urogenital infections Raccoons: conjunctivitis Fishing cat: one case of systemic fatal infection Mycoplasmosis Outbreak of fatal pneumonia due to M. ovipneumoniae in Dall’s sheep Fungal Diseases Most mammalian orders seem prone to dermatophytosis, esp. young animals Marine mammals: seem particularly prone to fungal infections Blastomycosis, cutaneous and systemic Sea Lions Bottlenose dolphin Candida sp, cutaneous and systemic Orcas, seals, sea lions Aspergillus fumigatus, lung Pinnipeds and cetaceans Cryptococcus neoformans Pinnipeds and cetaceans Coccidioides immitis sea otters Cyclic Fusarium associated dermatitis in pinnipeds, due to poor water quality Primates: Coccidioidomycosis Apes, particularly gorillas and chimps, susceptible to this disease Sporotrichosis Armadillos Mucormycosis, platypus One of few significant infectious diseases of platypus Cutaneous and systemic Rhinoceros Pulmonary aspergillosis (black rhino) Viral Diseases Encephalomyocarditis virus, picornavirus A bad actor in southern U.S. zoos Crosses species barriers Rodent reservoir Elephants, hippos, camelids, lions, foxes, tree kangaroos and primates, others likely susceptible. Very short course of clinical signs, if any Gross: Hydropericardium, possible ascites or pleural transudate, if animal lives long enough Possibly some white streaks in heart, foam in the trachea Histo: acute myocardial necrosis with suppurative to nonsuppurative inflammation Rarely any CNS component, so name somewhat of a misnomer Definitive diagnosis requires culture EM helpful in some cases Usually a history of this disease at the zoo. Malignant catarrhal fever (gammaherpesvirus) arteriodactylids Two classic forms of MCF (wildebeest associated and sheep associated) in US zoos DNA probes have made diagnosis of this disease easier, but have also indicated broader group of virus, apparently a goat associated and deer associated virus also out there Clinical: diarrhea, CNS signs. Gross: dermatitis, corneal clouding, effusions Histo: Nonsuppurative vasculitis. Lymphoid cells have atypia in many cases Lymphoproliferative disease indistinguishable from lymphoma suggests oncogenic potential. Epizootic Hemorrhagic disease/blue tongue related orbiviruses Common in wild deer populations in U.S. (esp. white tailed deer) Also common sporadic problem in the captive cervids, pronghorn antelope in zoos Natural hosts are cattle, wapiti and goats Culicoides vector Gross: widespread hemorrhage in viscera, necrosis of velvet antler, hoof slough, mucosal ulceration Hemorrhage in media at base of pulmonary artery a classic lesion of BT in sheep Histo: Hemorrhage, microvascular thrombosis, mild hyalin degeneration of vessels, scant inflammation Adenovirus of deer An adenovirus related to bovine Adenovirus type 3 causes a hemorrhagic disease of Mule deer and black tailed deer in western U.S., and white tailed deer in Midwestern US Gross and histologic lesions very similar to EHD, but adenovirus inclusions in nuclei of vascular endothelium Survivors may develop pharyngeal abscesses Not seen in the zoos yet, but probably just a matter of time Enteric rotavirus and coronavirus Few reports and field observations in captive nondomestic ruminants Primarily diseases of neonatal and young animals Usually associated with stress, suboptimal passive transfer Clinical: resembles neonatal calf diarrhea syndrome Gross: Not much in uncomplicated cases, perhaps some hyperemia to gut mucosa, fluid gut contents Histo: mucosal exfoliation, apical necrosis, blunting and fusion of villi Morbilliviruses Canine distemper virus a significant pathogen in zoo populations Canidae, felidae, mustelidae, procyonidae, binturongs, Related morbilliviruses also cause distemper in pinnipeds and cetaceans. We have two modified live vaccine breaks on file, one in long tailed weasels, and one in fennec foxes. Also reported in mink, lesser pandas. Clinical: upper and lower respiratory disease, CNS disease, diarrhea Gross: Mucoid ocular and nasal discharge, lung lobe consolidation, Injected meninges Histo: Nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis, bronchointerstitial pneumonia with pneumocyte hypertrophy and syncytia, lymphoid depletion in spleen and nodes. Cytoplasmic and intranuclear eosinophilic inclusions in pneumocytes, mucosal respiratory epithelium, neurons and astrocytes Often secondary infections, Aspergillus, Toxoplasma, Bordetella, other bacteria. Lyssavirus (rabies) Rabies in the United States is primarily a disease of wildlife Fortunately, rabies is uncommon in captive zoo mammals in the United States All mammalian species considered susceptible Zoos in endemic areas considered susceptible, especially if there are problems with feral raccoons, foxes, skunks or bats. There are several related lyssaviruses, some with potential for causing disease in domestic animals and humans. Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP) Young cheetahs may be particularly susceptible to disease associated with this coronavirus Herpesvirus Equine herpesvirus 1 Camel, llama, Thompson’s gazelle, Grevy’s Zebra Elephant herpes Two related viruses that affect young Asian and African elephants Latent virus of African elephant apparently fatal in Asian elephants May be a similar relationship for latent Asian elephant herpes in African elephants Gross: In natural host, self limiting oral or cutaneous vesicles and ulcers In cross species infections, pericardial effusion and generalized petechiae Histo: hemorrhage, edema, mild myocarditis, intranuclear inclusions in vascular endothelium Macropod herpes Necrotic hepatitis Pseudorabies Not common in zoo species Has been diagnosed in captive coyotes Coatis Poxvirus Black and white rhinos Epidermal vesicles and pustules One outbreak of fatal disease in Captive cheetahs associated with cowpox One outbreak of fatal disease in felidae and giant anteaters cowpox-like virus Two documented outbreaks of poxvirus infection in pudus Tongue lesions, pneumonia Papillomavirus Several mammalian species are susceptible to papillomas caused by members of the papovaviridae Generally oral and cutaneous papillomas Common in primates, large cats Can undergo transformation to squamous cell carcinoma in snow leopards, bottlenose dolphins Parvovirus Subgroups of the feline parvovirus (Feline panleukopenia, Mink enteritis virus, Canine parvovirus Nondomestic felids, mustelids, canids, felids all considered susceptible. Gross: Segmental intestinal hemorrhage, mesenteric lymphadenopathy Histo: necrotizing enteritis, crypt loss, villous collapse, ulceration, bacterial overgrowth Retroviruses Lentivirus associated disease described in a lion similar to FIV in domestic cats Pestivirus A pestivirus has been isolated from a farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) serological evidence of a widespread low prevalence of infection Pestiviruses have been associated also with outbreaks of disease among captive ruminants in zoological collections. Among free-living ruminants, pestiviruses have been recovered from dead roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama dama), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis) and wildebeest (Connochaetes spp.) but in all these instances the contribution of the virus to the cause of the disease was uncertain. Wallal virus (orbivirus), blindness in kangaroos Nonsuppurative panuveitis/retinitis and optic neuritis with demyelination. Primarily an Australian disease, but a similar syndrome recently in a U.S. zoo Prion Disease Captive puma (UK), captive cheetah, Greater Kudu, Arabian Orynx Primate viruses An understanding of primate virology is essential for zoo veterinarians Some are zoonotic, some are subclinical in one species but fatal in others, some are oncogenic. Arenavirus: Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (callitrichids hepatitis virus) Significant pathogen of callitrichids Exposed through feeding of pinkies or capture of feral mice in exhibits Clinical: acute onset anorexia, depression, lethargy, seizures Gross: +/-jaundice, subcut. And intramuscular hemorrhage, hepatosplenomegaly Pleuropericardial effusions Histo: Hepatocellular swelling and necrosis, mild lymphocytic and neutrophilic infl., portal phlebitis, acidophilic bodies Hepatitis A, picornavirus Spontaneous infections in chimps, macaques, AF. green monkey, Owl monkey Cross infections between humans and monkeys of some types Clinical: Seroconversion, elevated transaminase, subclinical Histo: mild periportal inflammation, necrosis, acidophilic bodies Hepatitis B, orthohepadnavirus Humans are reservoir for primate infections Chimp, Orang, gibbon, gorilla, Cynomalgus, long tailed macaque Strong seroconversion and rapid elimination of virus in most cases Those with persistent antigen pose significant zoonotic risk for zoo workers Clinical: Seroconversion, elevated transaminases Histo: Chronic periportal inflammation with focal hepatocyte necrosis Hepatitis C, flavivirus, Transmitted by Blood transfusions in humans Experimental studies in Chimps Chimp has carrier states with persistent antigenemia Chronic active hepatitis, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma Hepatitis E, F, G Various human agents, primates susceptible to experimental infections Wholly monkey hepadenavirus New virus isolated from wholly monkey in U.S. with Fulminant hepatitis Chimp and squirrel monkey susceptible to experimental infection. Paramyxoviruses Measles, Morbillivirus Old World and New world primates, including apes Sp. susceptibility variable, Colobus and callitrichids very susceptible Source is often contact with infected humans High morbidity, variable mortality Clinical: Respiratory difficulty, diarrhea, conjunctivitis, dehydration Gross: maculopapular rash on ventral abdomen, inner thighs, pulmonary consolidation, enteric congestion, Histo: interstitial syncytial cell pneumonia, syncytia in skin, lymph nodes. Intranuclear and intracytoplasmic inclusions, encephalitis with neuronal and glial cell inclusions, gastroenteritis (esp., callitrichids, owl monkeys) Influenza virus Old and New World monkeys including apes, are susceptible Aerosol or direct contact exposure from infected humans (keepers, public) Clinical: coughing, depression, anorexia, conjunctivitis, mucopurulent nasal discharge. Most infections self limiting Rare cases of mortality in zoos, associated with anesthetic complications, secondary pathogens Simian Hemorrhagic fever virus (togavirus) Sporadic outbreaks in U.S. primate colonies, no reports in U.S. zoos Subclinical in patas (reservoir host), lethal only in macaques (up to 100% mortality) Transmission is contact or aerosol between macaques Requires blood or body fluid for transmission between patas and macaques Clinical: fever, anorexia, depression, facial edema, epistaxis, subcutaneous hemorrhage, markedly elevated LDH Gross: Petechiae on mucosae and serosae, hemorrhage in anterior duodenum, splenomegaly, hemorrhagic ring around lymphoid follicles in spleen Histo: lymphoid necrosis and hemorrhage, vasculitis, DIC, +/-lymphohistiocytic meningoencephalitis Must differentiate from other viral hemorrhagic disease agents in primates: Marburg, Ebola, Yellow Fever, Kyasanur Forest disease Yellow Fever and Kyasanur unlikely to occur in lab settings due to requirement for intermediate host inset vectors. Marburg, Ebola have hepatic necrosis with elevated transaminases rather than LDH. Ebola is pantropic with large amphophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions. EM, IHC also helpful in distinguishing these agents Herpesviruses The dynamics of various herpesvirus infections in primates provide a classic case for why primate species should never be mixed (no shared exhibits) Herpes B (H. simiae) Macaques, usually inappetent, latent infections are common Asymptomatic macaques can shed virus All macaques should be handled as if positive. Primates should never be mixed. Serology is useful screening tool. Many zoos have macaques with positive serology Can also cause disease in other monkeys with variable mortality DaBrazza, owl, African green, patas monkeys, gibbons, marmosets In humans, this virus causes encephalomyelitis which is usually fatal. Gross: +/- vesicles or ulcers on mucous membranes, conjunctivitis Histo: intranuclear inclusions and syncytia, necrosis in visceral lesions Herpes simplex (H. hominus) Latent and active infection common in humans Human to monkey and monkey to human transmission from active lesions Gibbon, chimp, cebus, Owl monkey, callitrichids, tree shrew Can be devastating in Owl monkeys but not common in any monkeys Gross: Vesicles, plaques, erosions or ulcers of mucous membranes, skin Histo: Epidermal balloon degeneration, vesicles, necrosis, syncytia, inclusions Necrosis in viscera Herpes Saimiri Reservoir host is squirrel monkey, subclinical infection of T cells Lymphoma: marmosets, owl, AF. Green, howler, spider monkeys No inclusions. Don’t mix species!!!!!!! Herpes ateles Reservoir host is spider monkey Similar lesions species spectrum as H. Saimiri Don’t mix species!!!!! Herpes tamarinus (herpes T) reservoir host squirrel monkey, subclinical or rarely vesicles on mucous membranes. Membrane Fatal generalized disease in owl monkeys and marmosets Gross Vesicles and ulcers on skin and mm, ulcers in GI, Histo: visceral necrosis, syncytia and intranuclear inclusions Don’t mix species!!!!! Simian Varicella Group of closely related herpesvirus resembling human varicella-zoster (chicken pox) Latency common in primates Acute fatal disease seen in Af green patas monkeys, pigtailed macaques Gross: Cutaneous oral vesicles Histo: Necrosis, intranuclear inclusions in viscera Cytomegalovirus Host specific herpesviruses that infect a number of different primate species Infections generally subclinical Clinical manifestations of infection generally due to immunosuppression Simian immunodeficiency virus, lentivirus (SIV, Simian AIDS) Eight different SIV isolates Tropism for CD4 T cells African species do not develop disease Af green, sooty mangabey, Sykes, mandrill, chimpanzees Asian Macaques susceptible to disease Gross: variable, depending on actual cause of death Acute fulminate disease due to opportunists Chronic wasting Maculopapular skin rash Histo: Also variable, Lymphoid tissues are principal target tissues Range of lesions including hyperplasia, atrophy, granulomatous inflammation, lymphoproliferative disease. Encephalomyelitis with multinucleated giant cells Giant cell interstitial pneumonia and lymphoid hyperplasia Intimal medial thickening of pulmonary vessels Glomerulosclerosis, intestinal villous atrophy and crypt hyperplasia Opportunistic infections common: Candida, Cryptosporidium, Pneumocystis, Mycobacterium avium/intracellulare, CMV, adenovirus, Histoplasma, Trichomonas. Epstein-Barr virus- associated lymphoma Simian retrovirus type D retrovirus (also referred to as Simian AIDS) Five serotypes (1-5) Primarily a disease of Asian Macaques Common in wild and captive animals Carriers often asymptomatic Clinical: weight loss, anemia, diarrhea Gross: lymphadenomegaly, splenomegaly, gingivitis, noma Histo: subcutaneous fibrosarcomas, retroperitoneal fibromatosis (SRV-2) Lymphoid hyperplasia and atrophy amyloidosis Secondary infections similar to SIV SV 40 virus (papovavirus, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy) Asian macaques, Usually subclinical Clinical disease in immunosuppressed animals. demyelinating encephalopathy, interstitial pneumonia, tubular nephropathy Intranuclear amphophilic inclusions Parasitic Inflammation of unknown cause Feline asthma, lions Autoimmune/Immunosuppressive disease Traumatic Disease Toxic disease Reproductive and Perinatal Disease Birds Noninflammatory Cardiopulmonary and Vascular Disease Athersclerosis: anseriformes, psittacines, rhamphastids Mostly greater vessels, also occasionally in glomeruli of psittacines Dissecting aortic aneurisms, ratites, poultry Proposed causes: genetics, copper deficiency or copper antagonists, trauma, aging Degenerative Disease Arthritis in all species Deposition and Storage Diseases Amyloid Very common in most species: ducks, geese, flamingos, stilts, cranes, penguins, finches, toucans, hornbills, granivorous birds. Not as common in psittacines and raptors Etiopathogenesis not well understood: inflammation, wasting, stress, genetics Mostly reactive systemic amyloidosis Glomerulus and interstitium, liver, adrenal, heart, blood vessels, spleen. Gross: may be generalized organ enlargement, pale discoloration “hepatomegaly with pallor” Histo: Homogenous eosinophilic material replaces normal tissue architecture, Stains orange with Congo red. Mineral Metastatic mineralization is common in birds, usually due to renal disease (especially gout), follicular stasis or dehydration. Target tissues are kidney, lung, proventriculus and vessels. Flamingos, geese, ducks, raptors, columbiformes, psittacines Pneumoconiosis Very common in birds, especially certain species of ground dwellers/feeders, tunnelers, thrushes, pigeons, woodpeckers, bee-eaters, penguins, plovers, cranes, herons, spoonbills, Ibis granivorous birds, burrowing owls, kiwi Seems more prominent in collections from southern arid or dusty regions Significance of this process is difficult to judge, in some species seems well tolerated even with prominent deposition. Controlled studies in chickens indicate increased sensitivity to endotoxemia and possible impaired pulmonary immunity. In some species, may not be well tolerated, such as parrots or finches in smoker homes Burrowing penguins on artificial substrate These birds may be more prone to anesthetic complications, respiratory infections, wheezing etc. Gross: Small black spots in the lungs and air sacs Histo: inorganic, refractile particles in cytoplasm of macrophages around the parabronchi and in the interstitium of the air sacs Important note: the pulmonary lesion of pneumoconiosis looks almost exactly like pulmonary mycobacteriosis and both conditions can occur concurrently. Acid fast stain is indicated, even if you can see the inorganic material in the lung. Don’t be fooled. A condition resembling pneumoconiosis is seen in birds that have aspirated oil during spills. The material accumulates in the macrophages around parabronchi. Darker pigment, not generally refractile. Lipid Hepatic lipidosis is not tolerated well in birds, particularly psittacines. Iron Many species of birds affected. Columbiformes (pigeons and doves), Ramphastids (toucans), Coriiformes (hornbills, kingfishers), ciconiformes (flamingos), various species of passerines (tanagers, starlings, mynahs, crows magpies), psittacines (particularly lorikeets and Lorys). Overt hemochromatosis particular common in toucans, pigeons and lorikeets. These birds may have increased sensitivity to absorption of dietary iron, or less tolerance to iron storage in tissues. Most cases of iron storage in birds are due to sequestration associated with wasting or chronic inflammatory disease. Melanin Melanin pigment disorders do not occur in birds. Miscellaneous Gout: uric acid is end product of purine metabolism in birds, reptiles and some amphibians. Hyperuricemia: elevate blood uric acid levels. Cause: Dehydration, high protein diets, renal disease Very common disease condition in all birds and reptiles, rare in amphibians. Generally considered secondary problem Gross: renal enlargement and pale discoloration, irregular nodules (urate tophi) film of chalky material on viscera joint swelling and chalky material in the joints Histo: Early renal lesion is mild tubular distention and urate in the tubules. progresses to urate crystal formation and associated granulomatous inflammation (tophus). The crystals are stellate and pale eosinophilic. May only be clear silhouette of the crystals (soluble in formalin)Tubular abrogation cause severe inflammation in renal interstitium. Tophi will also form in joints and within other visceral parenchyma. On surfaces of viscera, urate precipitation is a thin layer of granular basophilic material sometimes with fibrin and some heterophils. Can wash off during processing. Lysosomal storage disease: Rare in birds, GM1-like gangliosidosis in Emu, alpha glucosidase deficiency in Japanese quail, Ochratoxins in chickens Single case resembling Lafora disease in a parakeet Heritable storage disorder in Costas hummingbirds Anomalies Inbreeding High incubation temperatures Fetal malposition Retained or externalized yolk sac Umbilical hernia of intestine Scoliosis Hydrocephalus Prognathism Splay leg Toe malformations Beak deformities Aplasia of myenteric ganglia finch Overriding tracheal rings Slipped hock tendons Cervical muscle anomalies spina bifida Complications of Restraint and Anesthesia Pulmonary hemorrhage common with gas anesthesia (overzealous positive pressure?) Aspiration Rhabdomyopathy (ratites) Idiosyncratic reactions? Fractures (ratites) Metabolic/endocrine Disease Follicular goiter Ibis, seriema, macaws, Magellan, jackass and black foot penguins Metabolic bone disease Hepatic lipidosis Xanthomatosis Nutrtional Disease Obesity: high fat diets, very common, especially in psittacines on seeds. Fatty liver, birds do not tolerate fatty liver as well as reptiles and mammals. Lipomas in psittacines Athersclerosis in many species (see cardiovascular) Slipped hocks, gallinaceous birds, cranes and ratites High protein/low calcium diets “Angel wing” in anseriformes, aligned secondary flight feathers due to twisting at carpal joint leg deformities in ratites poor growth rates in psittacines gout, all species Vitamin E deficiency, esp. boat billed herons, other fish eating birds. Encephalomalacia (“crazy chick disease”) Poultry, psittacines Vitamin E toxicosis : in Pink backed pelicans, soft tissue hemorrhage. Hypovitaminosis A Psittacines on seeds. Squamous metaplasia of oral mucous membranes, uropygial gland, ureters. Hyperkeratosis of plantar surfaces of metatarsal and digital pads Lesions in bone and nervous tissue. Reduced egg production, thin shelled eggs Hypocalcemia, African and Timneh Grey parrots Seizure disorders. Etiopathogenesis not well understood, possibly genetic or nutrtional . Iodine deficiency , budgerigars on seed diets. Goiter. Neoplastic and Proliferative Disorders Sporadic neoplasia involving any body system can be seen in all species. Published or observed trends are emphasized. Neoplasia is better documented in captive and domesticated birds than wild birds (more closely observed, live longer). Psittacines: Cutaneous papillomas (papillomavirus) Syndrome of cloacal polyp/carcinoma, biliary and pancreatic adenocarcinoma, alimentary squamous cell carcinoma, possibly viral. Not proven. Cutaneous and coelomic lipomas very common budgies, cockatoos, Amazons. Myelolipomas, wings and legs, rarely viscera. Can be locally invasive. Cockatiels Xanthoma, Not a true neoplasm, probably induced by trauma, possible association with hypercholesterolemia. Common on wings, legs and trunk. Fibrosarcoma, common on wings, less so on trunk. Budgies, cockatiels, macaws, parrots Squamous cell carcinoma, uropygial gland, oral cavity, skin Uropygial gland adenoma and adenocarcinoma, budgies (canaries) Feather folliculoma and feather cysts, budgies (canaries) Renal adenocarcinomas, budgies Nephroblastoma, budgies Sertoli cell tumors, budgies Seminomas, budgies Pituitary adenomas, budgies, cockatiels Ovarian neoplasms, common in all psittacines, granulosa cell tumors and adenocarcinomas Ovarian adenocarcinomas are sometimes associated with hyperostosis Proventricular and ventricular adenocarcinoma common, esp., Grey cheek parakeets Passerines: Hemangiosarcoma, skin Lymphoid malignancies in canaries Uropygial gland tumors in canaries Viral papillomas in chaffinches Galliformes: Retrovirus associated lymphoid malignancies, fibrosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma Nephroblastoma (retrovirus-associated in chickens) Seminomas, Japanese quail Ovarian granulosa cell tumors and adenocarcinomas. Raptors: Considering that these birds are fairly long lived in captivity and closely observed, neoplasia is sporadic with few if no trends. Mast cell tumors in owls (three cases reported) Invasive visceral myelolipomas in owls (snowy and screech) Anseriformes Chondromas, legs Columbiformes seminomas Infectious and Inflammatory disease Bacterial Disease Bacterial disease is the most common primary or secondary disease process submitted to Northwest ZooPath Mycobacteriosis Usually M. avium/intracellulare complex, but atypicals also seen. All species considerable susceptible. Seems particularly common in anseriformes, finches, raptors. No useful clinical diagnostic procedures except biopsy Usually generalized visceral involvement, particular liver, spleen, intestine and lung Gross: Generally, diffuse thickening of the gut. Spleen and liver may be diffusely enlarged and pale or may have a tan/white nodular infiltrate Histo: Histopathology is variable. Diffuse sheets of histiocytes is most common in the gut with M. avium complex. Tend to see more granulomas in spleen and liver, but diffuse histiocytic infiltrates also seen with M. avium complex. Lung can have overt granulomas, but often has more subtle findings, scattered low numbers of the organisms in foci of parabronchial histiocytes/pneumoconiosis Yersiniosis (pseudotuberculosis) Y. pseudotuberculosis, Y enterocolitica Primarily a problem with birds and primates. Particularly susceptible birds: lorikeets, rhamphastids, anseriformes and galliformes. Sporadic but can have significant outbreaks. Route of infection is oral, so initial lesion is suppurative or ulcerative enteritis, but rapidly disseminates to liver, spleen, lung, bone marrow. Gross: ulcerative enteritis, miliary white foci in liver, spleen Histo: microabscesses with prominent colonies of gram negative bacilli. Salmonellosis: Somewhat common in numerous species of birds Some species are host adapted: S. gallinarum-pullorum, chickens, S. typhimurium var Copenhagen to pigeons and European finches Enteric and reproductive manifestations with septicemia seem most common Less commonly, chronic generalized infections involving joints, skin, CNS also seen. Some unique presentations and susceptibilities: Lories and jackass penguins highly susceptible African greys highly susceptible to chronic disease Granulomatous dermatitis, arthritis, tenosynovitis CNS disease common in anseriformes Arthritis in pigeons Granulomatous ingluvitis in finches resembling candidiasis or trichomoniasis House finches and gold finches with septicemia commonly associated with outdoor feeders in many parts of U.S. Gross: Ulcerative enteritis or granulomas in gut, fibrinous to granulomatous coelomitis, may be granulomas in any tissues. Histo: acute fibrinoheterophilic inflammation with bacteria, or granulomas. Streptococcal infections A number of different Streptococcus sp and the related Enterococcus sp have been associated with septicemia in various species of birds. Omphalophlebitis and post hatching septicemia Some species related syndromes: S. bovis in pigeons, septicemia and chronic arthritis E. faecalis in passerines: pneumonia and tracheitis Staphyloccocal infections: Myositis in poultry Tenosynovitis in poultry and other birds Dermatitis and arthritis in most species Omphalophlebitis, epiphysitis, osteomyelitis, vegetative endocarditis and sepsis Common isolate in cases of Amazon foot necrosis Very common isolate in cases of bumblefoot Pasteurellosis P. multocida is the agent of fowl cholera, a significant pathogen of anseriformes and galliformes. Large outbreaks with high mortality frequently reported Also important pathogen for sporadic disease in Raptors psittacines All birds considered susceptible Seen rarely and sporadically in zoo collections. Conjunctivitis, sinusitis/rhinitis, pneumonia, air sacculitis, septicemia A few cases of fascial sinusitis and otitis media in psittacines. P. anatipestifer (Riemerella anatipestifer) “New duck disease” significant pathogen of anseriformes (ducks) and galliformes. Frequently associated with stress and crowding Fibrinous coelomitis, meningitis, chronic lesions in skin and joints Bordetella avium Lockjaw and respiratory tract infections in cockatiels Klebsiella infections K. pneumoniae and K. oxytoca are significant pathogens in birds Considered primary pathogens in weaver finches Opportunists causing pneumonia and septicemia in pigeons, finches , geese, raptors, Amazons and African Greys Occasionally localized skin and joint infections in psittacines. Clostridial infections Cl. botulinum (botulism) Botulism type C is a major problem in wild aquatic fowl, sometimes with very large losses, perpetuated by ingestion of affected maggots Botulism seen only rarely in captive birds, but most species considered susceptible. Vultures and some raptors resistant Cl. piliformis (Tyzzer’s disease) Lorikeet, cockatiel Cl. perfringens Types A-E (enterotoxemia) Lorikeets, rhamphastids, penguins Chlamydiosis a major disease problem in birds, and a zoonotic disease. C. psittaci Causes disease most commonly in psittacines, but all birds probably susceptible. Upper and lower respiratory disease Hepatitis and splenitis, occasionally enteritis and encephalitis Gross: conjunctivitis and rhinitis, pneumonia, fibrinous coelomitis, hepatosplenomegaly Histo: predominantly nonsuppurative, histiocytic. Organisms in histiocytes Gimenez and Machiavella stains IHC, In-situ hybridization, EM Antibiotic therapy prior to death can deplete organism and make diagnosis very difficult. Serology, nested PCR on blood, Fecal culture, Fecal Eliza also helpful. Clinical diagnosis of chlamydiosis is challenging, to say the least. Experienced clinicians treat based on clinical signs Bumblefoot bumblefoot affects all species, although it is most common in the larger heavier anseriformes and raptors. Bumblefoot is a disease primarily of plantar surfaces. Lesion occurring on dorsum of foot usually mediated by poxvirus or rodent bites Probably a trauma-induced lesion, but many different species of bacteria and fungi involved. Staphylococcus sp., E. coli, Pseudomonas sp. Clostridium sp Gross: Ulcerative, granulomatous pododermatitis Histo: deep ulceration with heterophilic to granulomatous inflammation and granulation tissue, can extend into tendons and bone. Amazon foot necrosis: A disease of Amazon parrots, but also occasionally seen in other psittacines Actually a vascular lesion with thrombosis, hemorrhage infarct of toe in advanced cases Etiology undetermined. Autoimmune, septic, contact irritants have been proposed. Usually has severe secondary bacterial components, especially in advanced lesions. Megabacteriosis Classification of this organism is pending, may actually be a fungus Very difficult to culture Large gram positive bacilli on the surface of the mucosa in proventriculus and ventriculus Budgerigars, finches, parrotlets, cockatiels Associated with chronic inflammation and wasting. No gross Histo: sheets of large bacilli up to 150 microns, arranged usually in parallel. Nonsuppurative inflammation and glandular disruption in the proventriculus Fungal Disease In birds Cryptococcosis Grows in feces of birds as hyphae form, Yeast form in mammals potential zoonotic pathogen Cases in birds rare, two cases reported in columbiformes Aspergillosis Very common, all species, particularly psittacines, raptors and aquatic birds Penguins seem particularly predisposed Granulomas of upper and lower respiratory tract Gross, white to green, sometimes fuzzy, granulomas Histo: granulomas with caseous core. organisms usually found at margin of necrotic regions Candidiasis Common in all birds, passerines seem particularly predisposed probably mediated by stress, other immunosuppressive agents Oral plaques, ingluvial hyperkeratosis (“Turkish towel” appearance) Koilin degeneration and bacterial infection in the ventriculus Cutaneous manifestations also seen less commonly, hyperkeratotic dermatitis. Geotrichum candidum Cutaneous infections in flamingos Histoplasma capsulatum Shed in feces, grows as hyphal form Yeast form infective to mammals, potential zoonotic pathogen Birds resistant to infection, presumably due to higher body temperature . unidentified yeast Causes systemic infections in ducks, geese and pelicans mainly in Northwestern U.S. and Canada “Muscovy duck disease” , these ducks may be particularly susceptible. Gross: Ascites and pulmonary congestion Histo: organisms in cytoplasm of endothelial cells, with associated vascular degeneration, pneumonia, neuritis (often lame prior to death) Viral Disease in birds Pox Avipoxvirus usually species specific, but all birds probably susceptible Transmitted by direct contact (fighting), arthropod bites (mosquitoes) Clinical: varies based on strain differences, mode of transmission and host susceptibility Generally self limiting, cutaneous, diphtheroid, septic and oncogenic Gross: Coryza, raised crusted ocular, cutaneous lesions (esp., face and feet) Histo: Marked epidermal proliferation with balloon degeneration, intracytoplasmic inclusions (Bollinger bodies) Diagnosis: histopathology, culture Herpesvirus Marek’s Disease Principally a disease of poultry, but also a similar disease in great horned owls, ducks, swans, a toucan and a kestrel. We have a red tailed hawk in our files with something like this. Clinical: wasting, leg paresis or paralysis, ataxia Gross: nodular grey white in filtrates in viscera, marked enlargement of peripheral nerves and sciatic nerve. Histo: lymphoma, often a pleomorphic lymphoid infiltrate, sometimes admixed with plasma cells. Diagnosis: histopathology, culture, serology Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) Gallinaceous birds susceptible (esp. pheasants), adults and growing birds greater than 8 wks old Transmission is aerosol Clinical: dyspnea, gasping, coughing, wheezing, weakness, cyanosis, conjunctivitis, sinusoidal swelling Gross: Larynx and trachea. hemorrhage or fibrin deposition, caseous plugs and diphtheritic membranes Histo: ballooning degeneration and necrosis of mucosal epithelium, intranuclear inclusions. +/- microscopic evidence of bronchopneumonia with inclusions Diagnosis: histopathology, culture, serology Amazon tracheitis Serologically related to ILT Mild disease in gallinaceous birds, severe in Amazon parrots Similar disease in Bourke’s parrots Gross: Resembles ILT Histo: Resembles ILT Diagnosis: histopathology and culture Duck Plaque (Duck virus enteritis): Free ranging and captive Anatidae (geese, ducks swans) Mallards, common teal and pintails relatively resistant but carriers Others susceptible Outbreaks in zoological collections linked to interactions with feral birds Clinical: Peracute with no clinical signs Acute form: watery or hemorrhagic diarrhea, lacrimation and photophobia Paralysis of phallus, tremors, convulsions Gross: Generalized petechiae and ecchymoses Annular hemorrhagic bands in intestine Necrosis of cloacal wall Parallel erosions and diphtheritic membranes in distal esophagus, hepatic necrosis Histo: Intranuclear inclusions hepatocytes, bile duct, cloacal, esophageal epithelium Diagnosis: histopathology, culture and serology Pacheco’s disease A disease strictly of psittacines, all probably susceptible Conures incriminated as carriers, but any infected bird that survives should be considered a carrier. May be multiple species involved Outbreaks have been linked to stress Clinical: Found dead, lethargy, green feces, hemorrhagic diarrhea Gross: hepatomegaly with small white foci, splenomegaly and renomegaly Histo: discreet foci of acute hepatic, splenic and pancreatic necrosis Intranuclear inclusions in cells surrounding necrotic foci Diagnosis: histopathology, culture, serology, in situ hybridization Gouldian Finch herpesvirus Clinical upper and lower respiratory signs Gross: fibrinous deposits on mucosal surfaces Histo: inclusions in respiratory epithelium, necrosis These inclusions are very large, and resemble cytomegalovirus inclusions of mammals Other avian herpesvirus infections There are several other herpesvirus related syndromes in birds, associated with serologically distinct virus that more or less have lesions similar to those of Pacheco’s disease. Inclusion body hepatitis of pigeons, falcons, owls, eagles, cranes, quail, storks Viral papillomas on feet of cockatoos A herpesvirus has been proposed but not proven for cloacal papillomas/polyps in psittacines (particularly Amazon parrots), also an association with pancreatic and biliary adenocarcinomas. Papovaviridae Tend to cause persistent infections that are activated by stress Two groups: papillomavirus and polyomavirus Papillomavirus Cutaneous papillomas Virus isolated from finches, African grey parrots. papillomas also seen in the skin and alimentary tract of other psittacines , but to date no virus isolated from these lesions. Gross: raised nodular skin mass, usually face and legs or feet. Histo: typical papilliform epidermal proliferation seen with mammalian viral papillomas, although koilocytes and inclusions are rare or not present Diagnosis: Histo, culture, IHC, EM Polyomavirus (budgerigar fledgling disease BFD) A bad actor in young psittacines and finches Numerous related viruses Horizontal and vertical transmission suspected. BFD was first avian polyomavirus to be described. Clinical: In budgies, found dead in acute forms, Feather dystrophy (“French molt” in chronic forms) In other psittacines, usually found dead, or moribund A chronic form has been described: Wt loss, anorexia, recurrent bacterial and fungal infections. In finches: acute fatalities in all age groups but primarily fledglings. Survivors may develop feather dystrophy and beak anomalies. Gross: Hemorrhage, muscle, heart, coelomic cavity, gut, +/- mottled white/red liver. Deadies usually in excellent physical condition. Histo: Hemorrhage and necrosis in viscera. Large clear to amphophilic intranuclear inclusions and karyomegalic change, best in macrophages of spleen and Kupffer cells of liver. Sometimes spleen is only tissue with inclusions. We have a few cases in which inclusions were only detected in lung or brain. Feather dysplasia can not be distinguished from lesions of PBFD (see below) Diagnosis: Histopathology, viral culture, serology, PCR, in-situ hybridization. Circoviridae Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD) Documented only in psittacines, probably all species susceptible Oral and aerosol transmission In young birds, lymphoid tissues are target organs, especially bursa. Necrosis, intracytoplasmic and intranuclear inclusions in macrophages and epithelial cells of bursa. Few cases of acute hepatic necrosis with out inclusions also described. In older birds acute infections, feather dystrophy, necrosis, ballooning of follicular epithelium with inclusions in pulp cavity and follicle. Necrosis, ballooning, inclusions of oral and beak epidermis, hyperkeratosis and degeneration of the keratin layer. Diagnosis: histopathology, DNA probes, in-situ hybridization, serology May see concurrent polyomavirus or chlamydiosis in affected birds. Pigeon circovirus A circovirus of pigeons very similar morphologically to acute phase of psittacine circovirus infection, inclusions in lymphoid tissues, immunosuppression. Virus similar but not identical to PBFD virus. Chicken Infectious Anemia (CIA) A disease of significant economic importance in young chickens Severe aplastic anemia, lymphoid atrophy and immunosuppression Adenovirus: Three groups of aviadenoviruses Gp1: Fowl adenovirus (galliformes, anseriformes, columbiformes, psittacines) Gp2: Turkey hemorrhagic enteritis virus, Marble spleen disease and chicken splenomegaly virus Gp3: infectious salpingitis virus of galliformes, and a similar virus in ducks Grp1 specific diseases Pancreatic necrosis of guineafowl Encephalopathy of Japanese quail Quail bronchitis Pancreatitis and nephropathies in love birds Adenovirus hepatitis of psittacines Diagnosis: culture, histopathology, serology, DNA probes Grp 2 specific diseases Marble spleen disease Pheasants, possibly guinea fowl Gross: marked splenomegaly Histo: lymphoreticular hyperplasia, intranuclear inclusions Diagnosis: histopathology, probes (difficult to culture) Parvovirus The most significant parvovirus of birds is Goose parvovirus (Derzsy’s disease) Canada goose, Snow goose, Muscovy duck susceptible Horizontal and transovarial transmission Young birds 1-21 days old are susceptible to clinical disease Clinical: anorexia, polydipsia, conjunctivitis, diarrhea and diphtheroid membranes on tongue In chronic cases, feather loss, growth retardation, swollen uropygial gland Gross: hepatomegaly, small spleen, intestinal hemorrhage, pulmonary edema, ascites, myocardial pallor Histo: necrotic hepatitis with intranuclear inclusions, pancreatic necrosis, Myocardial degeneration Diagnosis: virus isolation, histopathology, serology Reovirus Most avian families are susceptible to reovirus infections but disease is uncommon, lesions usually don’t have inclusions Diagnosis by signalment, histopathology and culture Psittacines (esp. African greys): hepatic necrosis, splenic necrosis nephritis, no inclusions Pigeons, catarrhal enteritis Ducks (muscovy and muscovy/mallard crosses “mullards”) Hepatocelluar and splenic necrosis, pericarditis and air saculitis. Geese: infectious myocarditis in goslings Finches: nonsuppurative hepatitis, nephritis and enteritis Rotavirus Enteric infections (esp. galliformes) common but significance not well understood. Has been associated with “runting-stunting syndromes in poultry Often seen in conjunction with other enteric viruses: astrovirus, picornavirus. Coronavirus The most significant coronavirus infection in birds is Infectious bronchitis virus Chickens, Pheasants, guineafowl, pigeons Mortality highest in young birds Clinical: respiratory signs, anorexia, emaciation, diarrhea Gross: Catarrhal or caseous sinusitis tracheitis, bronchitis airsacculitis, swollen kidneys Histo: necrosis, heterophilic lymphocytic infiltrates in resp. mucosa Interstitial nephritis with tubular necrosis, gout, and uroliths Diagnosis: History, gross / histologic lesions, serology, virus isolation, RT/PCR A coronavirus has been associated with enteritis has been documented in ostrich chicks. Togaviridae (arthropod vectors) Eastern and Western Equine Encephalitis virus (EEE, WEE) Serologically distinct but some cross reaction occurs Mosquito vectors Probably all species susceptible to subclinical infection, with seroconversion Disease seen in pheasants, chukars, turkeys, whooping cranes, emus, finches, pigeons Gross: hepatomegaly, mucoid duodenopathy, dehydration, CNS signs Histo: nonsuppurative encephalitis, myocarditis, splenitis, hepatitis, vasculitis. Brain lesions tend to be in rostral aspect (cerebrum) Diagnosis: Virus isolation, serology, IHC. Paramyxoviridae Paramyxviruses PMV-1 Newcastle’s disease (NDV) and all other related strains NDV isolated divided based on virulence and epizootiological importance Velogenic, mesogenic and lentogenic forms described but only pertains to chickens Virulence is host specific Probably all birds susceptible to infection Clinical and pathologic presentations vary widely Clinical: peracute death, Green diarrhea, anorexia, lethargy, cyanosis, rales, dyspnea, resp exudates, CNS signs Gross: serosal/mucosal petechiae, reddening of gut mucosa (esp. jejunum) and cecal tonsils Histo: highly variable, but in virulent cases: hemorrhagic, necrotizing enteritis, hemorrhage and necrosis of lymphoid tissue, nonsuppurative tracheitis, airsacculitis and pneumonia, nonsuppurative encephalitis. Diagnosis: Serology, virus isolation, IHC PMV1- pigeon Related to NDV but serologically, biochemically and pathogenically unique Columbiformes, psittaciformes, Falconiformes, passeriformes, galliformes Clinical: PU/PD, anorexia, diarrhea, vomiting, CNS signs, egg deformities, dystrophic molt. Gross and Histo: as with NDV Diagnosis: Serology, virus isolation PMV-2 Widespread in passeriformes, usually subclinical infections Subclinical or mild upper respiratory infections in passeriformes More severe infections seen occasionally in galliformes and psittacines (esp. African greys) Diagnosis: virus isolation, serology PMV-3 Psittaciformes, galliformes, passeriformes Predominantly upper respiratory, conjunctival and ocular lesions. Diagnosis: serology, virus isolation PMV 5 Predominantly a psittacine disease, esp., budgies, and lories Gross: visceral congestion, swollen livers and spleen, pseudomembrane in gut. Histo: necrosis in liver and spleen, with giant cell formation Orthomyxovirus Avian Influenza Divided into various subtypes based on neuraminidases and hemagluttinins Subclinical infections to acute mortality (fowl plague) Large host spectrum: Anseriformes, galliformes, Psittaciformes, Passeriformes, various shore birds Clinical: (variable) Respiratory and CNS signs, lethargy, cyanosis, conjunctivitis Gross: Respiratory and synovial exudates, Histo: catarrhal, fibrinous, hemorrhagic and necrotizing inflammatory lesion so f the respiratory tract, polyserositis, hemorrhages in brain an viscera. Encephalitis usually not present. Diagnosis: Virus isolation/strain differentiation, paired serology Retroviruses Avian leukosis/sarcoma group A group of closely related type C retroviruses cause a variety of neoplastic diseases in chickens, pheasants, partridges, quail, guinea fowl, ducks and pigeons. Lymphoid leukosis, erythroblastosis, myeloblastosis, myelocytomatosis, hemangioma, nephroma and nephroblastoma, hepatocellular carcinomas, fibroma, fibrosarcoma, histiocytic sarcoma, myxosarcoma, mesothelioma, osteopetrosis Diagnosis: virus isolation, blot hybridization, serology New tests being developed Reticuloendotheliosis group Group of related type C retroviruses that differ from the Avian leukosis/sarcoma group And are more closely related to mammalian reticuloendotheliosis virus group Turkeys, chickens ducks, quail, pheasants and geese Three syndromes recognized: runting disease, reticulum cell neoplasia, neoplasia of lymphoid and other tissues Diagnosis: virus isolation, PCR, serology New tests being developed Picorniviridae: very small RNA virus Avian Encephalomyelitis Chickens, turkeys, pheasants, quail and waterfowl Horizontal and vertical transmission Only young birds without maternal antibodies affected clinically Clinical and gross: CNS signs, blindness, ocular enlargement with lens opacities Histo: Nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis, central chromatolysis of neurons and Purkinje cells, lymphoid follicles in wall of ventriculus, peripheral nervous system not involved Diagnosis: histopathology, virus isolation and serology Miscellaneous Proventricular dilatation disease (PDD, myenteric ganglioneuritis, neuropathic gastric dilatation) Etiology undetermined, paramyxovirus is suspect based on preliminary studies Common in all Psittacines, similar disease seen rarely in anseriformes and finches Usually older birds, but we see it occasionally in birds only a few months old. Usually sporadic, but outbreaks in aviaries occasionally seen. Clinical: wasting, crop stasis, passage of whole seed in feces, radiographic evidence of proventricular dilatation, CNS or ocular signs Gross: +/- proventricular dilatation, perforation Histo: nonsuppurative myenteric, coelomic, cardiac ganglioneuritis, encephalomyelitis, optic neuritis, panuveitis. Mild nonsuppurative inflammation in viscera, mild mesangioproliferative glomerular changes. Diagnosis: crop or ventricular biopsies about 50-80 % sensitive in live birds. Histopathology is classic in deadies. No available antemortem test yet. Parasitic Inflammation of unknown cause Autoimmune/Immunosuppressive disease Traumatic Disease Toxic disease Reproductive and Perinatal Disease Reptiles and Amphibians Noninflammatory Cardiopulmonary and Vascular Disease Cardiomyopathies seen occasionally in snakes (particularly boids) and in monitors. Cause undetermined. Most common vascular lesion is mineralization (see under mineral deposition) Degenerative Disease Arthritis Chronic renal disease in aged iguanas Deposition and Storage Diseases Amyloid Amyloid deposition is rare in reptiles and may not occur in amphibians. Mineral Metastatic mineralization is common in reptiles, usually due to dietary imbalances, renal disease (especially gout) or follicular stasis. Target tissues are Great vessels, kidney, lung and gut. Rattlesnakes, boids, colubrids, viperidae Monitors, agamids, iguanas, basilisks, geckos, uromastyx, collared lizards, chameleons, chuckwalla Chelonians: mineralization not as common as other reptiles. Frogs and toads: cornea and skin (underlying renal disease or dietary problems) Tumoral calcinosis or pseudogout It is somewhat common in uromastyx and chelonians, involving the spine and appendages. Pneumoconiosis Pneumoconiosis is not a factor in reptiles and amphibians. Lipid Hepatic lipidosis can be a major disease process in reptiles and amphibians but finding lipid in the liver needs to be interpreted conservatively: Fat mobilization to the liver also occurs with active reproductive status in females and in preparation for or emergence from brumation (hibernation) Iron hemosiderosis is common but of little consequence in the liver of reptiles and amphibians. Generally reflects underlying disease processes. Melanin Melanin pigment deposition in viscera is common in reptiles, Amphibians and fish. The process occurs within melanomacrophage centers of the liver, lung, heart and spleen. Also seen in renal tubular epithelium. In amphibians, common in the hepatocytes. Melanin deposition increases with age, wasting, free radical detoxification and antigen processing. Usually an incidental finding or indicative of other disease processes Can be so severe in the liver as to cause hepatic insufficiency. Gross: Black discoloration to viscera. The pigmented hepatic melanomacrophage centers may be grossly visible in a reptile with prominent hepatocellular lipidosis. Histo: melanomacrophage centers are roughly spherical aggregates of macrophages, with varying amounts of cytoplasmic pigment: melanin, iron, ceroid. Large centers may fuse, and can be associated with fibrosis. In advanced cases, no normal liver may be visible microscopically. Miscellaneous Gout: renal, visceral and articular gout very common. Xanthomatosis: high dietary cholesterol, hypercholesterolemia Common in female geckos, less common in other reptiles Common in anurans “lipid keratopathy”, Cuban and white’s Tree frogs Gross: white nodules resembling granulomas, lungs, coelomic surfaces, brain Histo: nodular accumulations of cholesterol crystals (clefts) surrounded by macrophages, multinucleated cells Urolithiasis in whites tree frogs (common, cause undetermined) Anomalies Vertebral fusion in snakes Nonfused ventral body wall in snakes Externalized yolk sacs Ocular hypoplasia and aplasia Dysecdysis in corn and milk snakes (never shed), annulated boa Polycystic kidneys frilled dragon Degenerative myopathies in snakes. Segmental aplasia of colon, python Lingual deviations, Dumeril’s ground boa Hermaphrodites in amphibians Spindly leg syndrome in frogs A variety of leg and facial deformities in frogs exposed to organic toxins, esp. DDT Complications of Restraint and Anesthesia Pulmonary hemorrhage in those animals with metastatic mineralization of the lungs Metabolic/endocrine Disease Follicular and colloid goiter (especially rattlesnakes) In reptiles, colloid goiter should be interpreted conservatively due to seasonal variations in morphology of the thyroid gland Diabetes mellitus occasionally seen in turtles, cause unknown Metabolic bone disease (especially herbivorous lizards, frogs) Hepatic lipidosis Xanthomatosis Urolithiasis in Whites tree frogs Dysecdysis in corn and mild snakes Nutritional Disease Obesity: common in large sedentary reptiles, crocodilians, tegus, monitors, boids, snapping turtles Metabolic/nutritional bone disease Common in all herbivorous reptiles In lizards, typical lesions of fibrous osteodystrophy Thin bone cortices ribs, long bones vertebrae Pathologic fractures with fibrous calluses Fractures of vertebrae can impinge on cord, posterior paresis/paralysis Swollen, flexible jaw. In chelonians, presentation is different than in Lizards Osteopenia, especially shell. Chelonians don’t form the prominent compensatory fibrous tissue response seen in other reptiles, birds and mammals. In amphibians, the gross presentation is similar to other species Swollen limbs and jaws Histologic appearance differs: Instead of the prominent bone lysis with fibrous replacement, amphibians have large foci of cartilaginous metaplasia presumably compensatory, especially long bones. Do sometimes have minor fibrous tissue response Hypervitaminosis D Common in reptiles, overzealous vitamin supplementation Soft tissue mineralization Hypovitaminosis A Common in reptiles, especially aquatic chelonians on lettuce, meat diets Swollen eyelids Squamous metaplasia of mucous membranes. Hypervitaminosis A Common in chelonians administered injacom formulations Skin sloughs, often fatal. Iodine deficiency, large tortoises (Galapagos, Aldabra) goiter. Thiamine deficiency, garter snakes fed goldfish. Neoplastic and Proliferative Disorders Sporadic neoplasia involving any body system can be seen in all species. Published or observed trends are emphasized. Neoplasia is common in snakes, somewhat common in lizards and amphibians, and uncommon to rare in chelonians and crocodilians. Snakes: lymphoid malignancies, oral and cutaneous fibrosarcoma, malignancies of the reproductive tract most common. Corn snakes make be predisposed to colonic adenocarcinoma San Francisco garter snakes commonly get cutaneous melanomas Pythons predisposed to oral fibrosarcomas Lizards: lymphoid malignancies most common. Chelonians: Most common tumor is herpesvirus-associated papillomas in green turtles. We rarely see cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas and lymphoid malignancies in various species. Amphibians: Lymphoid and myeloproliferative disorders most common. Occasionally see melanomas, papillomas, ovarian, hepatic and renal neoplasia Infectious and Inflammatory disease Bacterial Infections Bacterial disease is the most common primary or secondary disease process submitted to Northwest ZooPath Mycobacteriosis Common in reptiles and amphibians M. chelonei, M. marinum, M. fortuitum, M. avium complex. Generally associated with wasting, although rapidly disseminating visceral disease in well nourished animals also seen occasionally, especially in snakes. Gross: white/tan nodules in the viscera Microscopic: Granulomas, organisms usually numerous with AF. Some of the amphibian infections can have low organism density. Salmonellosis Many species of reptiles, especially iguanas, carry enteric Salmonella Management is problematic, zoonotic disease occasionally seen, esp. children. Cause for development of clinical disease in reptiles not well understood Lesions similar to those of birds and mammals Enteritis, sepsis, granulomatosis, arthritis Common isolate in cases of vertebral osteomyelitis in snakes. Staphylococcal and Streptococcal infections Dermatitis and cutaneous or visceral granulomas, usually in conjunction with others Pasteurellosis Pasteurella infection is occasionally seen in reptiles in association with conjunctivitis and pneumonia, but probably opportunistic. Klebsiella infections Opportunist associated with hypopyon, pneumonia Necrotic stomatitis Very common in snakes, less common in lizards, chelonians, crocodilians Mixed bacterial and fungal infections Klebsiella, Salmonella, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas, others Poor husbandry, mouth trauma, stress Periodontal disease in agamids and chameleons Have acrodont dentition Laterally compressed triangular teeth ankylosed to the alveolar bone Don’t shed teeth like other lizards Gingiva does not cover junction of tooth and bone, so bone is exposed No periodontal ligament This exposure predisposed these animals to periodontal disease Inappropriate captive diet is major precipitating factor Diced vegetables and soft fruit may be inappropriate for these insectivores Osteomyelitis Bacterial osteomyelitis is common in reptiles Snakes, vertebral osteomyelitis Fusion of spine, variations in histologic appearance of acute and chronic lesions, lead to early misdiagnosis of Paget’s disease. Salmonella arizonae a common isolate in these cases, but others also involved. Appendicular osteomyelitis is common in lizards, especially iguanas Manifestation of sepsis. Bacterial shell disease Common in captive and wild chelonians. Beneckea chitinovora natural and experimental cases Many natural cases with mixed populations, likely multifactorial Citrobacter, E. coli, Salmonella, etc Shell lesions often represent cutaneous manifestation of sepsis Bacterial pneumonia Very common in reptiles, especially snakes Pythons particularly susceptible to Pseudomonas aeruginosa-associated pneumonia Pathogenesis of bacterial pneumonia is not well understood in reptiles Likely underlying immunosuppressive factors Possibly other infectious agents that have not bee characterized. Red Leg (amphibians) Mostly aquatic amphibians and frogs. Toad less susceptible. Bacterial dermatitis with sepsis. Condition likely mediated by stress, inappropriate substrates, trauma. Aeromonas hydrophila is the classic organism, but several other coliforms do the same thing. Bacterial pyelonephritis Common in amphibians, especially anurans. Gram negative organisms, usually coliforms Chlamydiosis Seen sporadically in reptiles, especially snakes, iguanas Systemic granulomatous disease. Organisms usually easy to find, if not treated. Also described and occasionally seen in frogs Mycoplasmosis: Common in desert tortoises and gopher tortoises, sporadic in other tortoises Respiratory disease Clinical/gross: bubble blowers, conjunctivitis, dyspnea Histo: nonsuppurative to exudative rhinitis, conjunctivitis, tracheitis and pneumonia. Diagnosis, serology, histopathology, EM, culture, PCR American Alligators Recent epizootic with high mortality in captive American Alligators Clinical: Anorexia, lethargy paresis, white ocular discharge, cutaneous edema. Gross: Pulmonary edema, epicardial adhesions, pericardial effusion, cloudy synovial fluid. Histo: Heterophilic, lymphocytic epicarditis, pneumonia, arthritis Diagnosis, histopathology, culture, EM Fungal Infections Chelonians: primarily pneumonia and dermatitis Aspergillus Geotrichum Beaveria Paecilomyces Mucor (skin) Lizards Aspergillosis, chuckwallas Snakes Systemic yeast (rattlesnake) Crocodilians: primarily pneumonia and systemic granulomatosis Systemic Paecilomycosis in crocodiles Beauveria bassiana pneumonia in alligators Amphibians Chytridiomycosis in frogs and salamanders Mucormycosis in anurans Chromomycosis, skin and visceral granulomas, pigmented hyphae Saprolegniosis, skin, aquatic animals Viral Infections Chelonia Herpesvirus of fresh water turtles Pacific pond turtles, painted turtles, map turtles, probably all fresh water turtles susceptible Gross: often not present, may be some reddening of lung, white foci in spleen and liver, hepatomegaly Histo: Inflammation and necrosis of viscera, vasculitis Inclusions, macrophages, hepatocytes, epithelium, endothelium Diagnosis: histopathology, EM, virus isolation. Herpesvirus of tortoises Argentine, desert, spur thighed, red footed tortoises, others likely susceptible. Clinical/gross: necrotizing Stomatitis, rhinitis Histo: mucosal necrosis with inclusions. Diagnosis: Gross and histo, EM, viral isolation, DNA probes being developed Herpes virus of Green Sea Turtles Grey-Patch Disease 2-3 mo old aquaculture reared. Clinical/gross: Epizootics of small circular skin lesions that coalesce into patches, skin of shell, legs, head Histo: intranuclear inclusions in epidermal cells Diagnosis: gross, histo, EM Lung, Eye and Trachea Disease (LET) Green Sea turtles (possibly a variant in Loggerhead turtles) Clinical: harsh respiratory signs, gasping upon surfacing Gross: Caseous material over globes, around glottis, airways of lung Histo: necrosis and inflammation in mucosae, bronchopneumonia, intranuclear inclusions. Diagnosis: Gross, histo, EM Fibropapillomatosis, mostly free ranging green sea turtles (other sea turtles have similar lesions) Clinical/gross: papillomas of variable (often very large) size covering skin, can cause blindness when covering eyelids, or if tumors involve cornea. May impair swimming if large tumors involve slippers. Animals starve in the wild. Internal papillomas in lung, liver, kidney and GI. Histo: Papilliform hyperplasia of the epidermis, sometimes with ballooning. Proliferation of fibroblasts in dermis. Rare intranuclear inclusions in epidermis. Diagnosis: Gross, histo, EM Iridovirus: from intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions Herman’s tortoises, hepatic necrosis Soft shelled turtles, “red neck disease” gopher tortoise, tracheitis Papillomavirus in Bolivian side neck turtles Clinical/gross: multifocal white oval skin lesions over head Also have ulcerative plastron lesions. Histo: Hyperplastic acanthotic epidermis, vacuolated nucleoli Does not look like conventional papilloma Diagnosis, Gross, histo, EM Crocodilia Adenovirus of Nile crocodiles Necrotizing hepatitis and enteritis Intranuclear basophilic inclusions in the hepatocytes and enterocytes Poxvirus of caiman, Nile crocodiles Grey white papular skin lesions Hypertrophied epithelium with intracytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions Lizards Herpesvirus Isolates from iguanas and green lizards but of unknown significance. NZP has one case of necrotizing inclusion body hepatitis in a leopard gecko and inclusions contained viral particles morphologically consistent with herpesvirus. Adenovirus Bearded dragons, Savannah monitor Rankin’s dragon lizards hepatomegaly Necrotizing hepatitis with intranuclear inclusions Inclusions in enterocytes also common in bearded dragons Also one report in a Jackson chameleon trachea and esophageal mucosal inclusions Paramyxovirus A paramyxovirus has recently been detected by EM, IHC and isolation as the cause of proliferative pneumonia in caiman lizards There is morphologic evidence that paramyxovirus may also cause proliferative pneumonia in iguanas. Papillomavirus European green Lizards Typical cutaneous papillomas with intranuclear inclusions Diagnosis: Histopathology and EM Snakes Paramyxovirus Most commonly a disease of vipers, but also seen in colubrids, boidae Most common presentation is acute respiratory difficulty or found dead Some snakes have apparent CNS signs, raising and wagging head, opisthotonos This is usually due to difficulty in breathing rather than CNS involvement May be more than one strain of virus, and some unusual presentations exist Renal inclusions Nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis (pythons) Gross: Reddened lungs +/- blood or fibrinous exudate in central lumen Histo: proliferative bronchointerstitial pneumonia, pancreatic ductular dysplasia, cytoplasmic inclusions are rare Diagnosis: Histopathology, IHC, serology, EM. The histologic change in the pancreas may be pathognomonic. The histologic changes in the lung are suspicious but no diagnostic, as bacterial and parasitic disease produce a similar lesion Inclusion body disease A disease of boidae and palm vipers. Anecdotal reports in colubrids Chronic wasting disorder, opportunistic infections, degenerative hepatic/renal disease Etiology undetermined but retrovirus has been proposed The absence of necrosis or inflammation associated with the inclusions is peculiar, and morphologically the disease more closely resembles a storage disorder than a viral infection No characteristic clinical or gross presentation, other than wasting. Disease is insidious, and may be spread horizontally and vertically. Liver and gastric biopsies used to screen. Skin and blood/buffy coat not sensitive enough as morphologic screening tools Histo: single cytoplasmic eosinophilic inclusions of various sizes in nearly all cell types. EM: Inclusions are characteristic. Spherical accumulation of electron dense material, with a central donut, and spherical particles budding from the inner and outer surfaces of the inclusion. Can also find these structures free in the cytoplasm adjacent to the inclusion Diagnosis: histopathology, EM. Inclusion disorder of Morelia (pythons) An intranuclear inclusion disorder associated with encephalomyelitis and ganglioneuritis In situ probes indicate this is a paramyxovirus Clinical: lethargy, CNS signs Gross: None Histo: Large eosinophilic to amphophilic Intranuclear inclusions in glial cells and neurons EM: Inclusions are stacks of thin filamentous material with periodicity, resembling paramyxovirus Diagnosis: Histopathology and EM Reovirus Colubrid snakes (beauty snakes and ratsnakes) Proliferative pneumonia with syncytia Other viruses Adenovirus and herpesvirus are seen occasionally Intranuclear inclusions in areas of necrosis and hemorrhage Snake erythrocytic virus: Iridovirus-like particles in cytoplasmic inclusions of circulating erythrocytes in water snakes. Generally subclinical. 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