Download FEM 3101 (Sem Pertama 2011-2012)

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INSTRUCTOR:
DR. SITI NOR BINTI YAACOB
DEPT. OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT & FAMILY STUDIES
FACULTY OF HUMAN ECOLOGY
Tel.: 603-89467088/ 03-89467093/012-2841844
e-mail:
[email protected]/[email protected]
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COURSE SYNOPSIS
Processes of physical, cognitive, social and
emotional growth and development from
conception through adolescence. Emphasis
on the major aspects at each stage of
development. Processes and outcomes of
interaction between the child-adolescent
and the environment.
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COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of the course students will be able to:
• Identify ecological processes of physical, socioemotional and cognitive development of children
and adolescents.(C2)
• Explain the effects of genetic, environment, and
genetic-environment interactions influences on
children-adolescent development. (C4, A3, CS)
• Explain the effects of children-adolescent
interactions with the environment on childrenadolescent growth and development. (P3,
CTPS, TS)
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About the course
 Part One: Introduction - Concepts,
Theories & Research
 Part Two: Child Psychology
 Part Three: Adolescent psychology
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COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS
Unit 1:
Introduces major concepts, principles and
theories of child and adolescent
development. Unit 1 also covers various
alternative methods researchers use to
explore questions or obtain information on
child and adolescent development.
Unit 2:
Highlights the prenatal development of the
unborn child.
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COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS
Unit 3:
Postnatal Development – Birth & Infancy
Unit 4:
Covers physical, intellectual, language and socioemotional development of children (early – late
childhood).
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COURSE CONTENT – 5 UNITS
Unit 5:
Covers significant aspects of adolescent development
such as physical, cognitive, personality, moral and
vocational planning. Specific developmental
problems during adolescence are highlighted.
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LECTURE TOPICS
1.
2.
3.
4.
Introduction
Prenatal development
Postnatal development
Physical development
in children
5. Cognitive development
in children
6. Language development
in children
7. Socio-emotion and
values development in
children
8. Adolescents’ physical
development
9. Adolescents’ cognitive
development
10. Adolescents’ socioemotional development
11. Adolescents’ vocational
and career development
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Assessments
Assessment
%
Mid semester test
Assignment (Lab)
1. Prenatal development report
25
2. Lab project for children
3. Lab project for adolescent
Final exam
TOTAL
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25
15
30
100
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WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?

Derived from Latin words: psyche & logos

Psyche = soul/emotions (feelings)
Logos = knowledge/field of studies
Broad definition:



Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and cognitive
processes. It describes thinking and behavior and looks at
the relationships between them (“the what”) and tries to
explain the causes for them (“the why”)
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DEFINITION OF CONCEPT
 What is Growth (Pertumbuhan)?
 What is Development
(Perkembangan)?
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GROWTH
 Growth is a quantitative process of change
 ex. change in weight/height – i.e. changes
in size and structure, physical and
mental aspects.
 Changes can be measured & assess - from
one stage to the other.
 Growth will reach its peak once a person
mature.
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DEFINITION
 “Growth is an individual development in
body size, for example changes in
muscles, bones, hair, skin & glands. [Karl E.
Garrison]
 “Growth is a change that can be
measured from one stage to the other, and
from time to time” [Atan Long]
 “Growth as an increment in a person
external attributes. For examples in terms
of size, height and body weight” [D.S
Wright & Ann Taylor]
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WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?





Development is change.
Child development is a scientific study of processes
of change and stability from conception through
adolescence.
It involves changes in physical, social, emotional
and intellectual functioning over time.
Changes include alterations in size, shape and
function. It can be either progressive or regressive.
Development occurs in the context of the
significant social environment of life process
(family, school, peer group, community).
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
The study of children is concerned with two
primary types of change over time:
 Quantitative change: refers to the easily
measurable and sometimes obvious
aspects of development (including
physical growth – height & weight,
vocabulary, frequency of communication &
years of education)
 Qualitative change: refers to variations
and modifications in functioning. It is a
change in kind, structure or organization.
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Behavioral change as a developmental
change
 Three general condition/criteria
 The change is orderly or sequential.
 The change results in a permanent
alteration of behavior.
 The change results in a new behavior or
mode of functioning that is more
advanced, adaptive or useful than prior
behaviors.
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Thus….Child Development is….
 A scientific study of understanding all
aspects of human constancy and change
from conception through adolescence
 A part of a larger discipline known as
developmental psychology or human
development, which includes all changes
experienced throughout the lifespan
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Developmental stages
 Prenatal
 Infancy (0-2 years) & Toddlerhood (2-3 years)
 Early childhood(3-6 years)
 Middle childhood (6-10 years)
 Adolescence (11-19 years)
 Early (11-14 years)
 Middle (15-17 years)
 Late (18-19 years)
 Adulthood(≥ 20 years)
 Early (20-30 years)
 Middle (40-50 years)
 Late (60 years and above)
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DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT



Change & stability occur in various domains of the self.
These domains are intertwined – each affects the others.
3 main domains:
 Physical – growth of the body & brain, sensory
capacities, motor skills & health.
 Cognitive – change & stability in mental abilities
(learning, memory, language, thinking, moral
reasoning & creativity).
 Psychosocial - change & stability in personality,
emotional life & social relationships.
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Influences on Development:
 Factors that can influence development
are: Nature (sejadi)
 Genetic (Warisan/baka/genetik)
 Nurture (Asuhan)
 Environment (Persekitaran)
 Food intake (Pemakanan)
 Health (Kesihatan)
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Major Contextual Influences
 Normative Influences
 Normative age-graded influences/event, i..e.
biological or social
 Example = puberty or entry into formal schooling
 Normative history-graded event, i.e. cohort (a group
of people who share a similar experience)
 Example = living during the Great
Depression/Tsunami
 i.e. Atypical events, e.g. having a birth defect
 Non-normative Influences
 Individual events that impact the person
 Events can be traumatic or happy
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

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
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Children of antiquity
Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries)
The Reformation (16th centuries)
Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th
centuries)
Evolution (Darwinism) & Child Development
Birth of Scientific Methodology
Mental Testing Movement
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Medieval times (6th – 15th centuries)
 Infants/newborn are regarded as miniature, already
formed adult
 Age was unimportant in medieval custom
 No concrete theories on children’s uniqueness or
separate developmental periods
 There exist some awareness of the vulnerability of
children (child protection laws & special clinical
care)
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

The Reformation (16th centuries)
 Belief on original sin
 Children were born evil and stubborn and
had to be civilized toward a destiny of virtue
and salvation
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries)
 John Locke (1632-1704)
 British philosopher who introduced “tabula rasa”
 Children begin with “nothing at all”
 Environments shape them
 Children are viewed in “passive”, “mechanistic”
term
 Ideas on “nurture” (parents as rational tutors)
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Philosophies of the Enlightenment (17th centuries)
 Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
 Children as “organism” - active shapers of their own
destiny
 Ideas on “nature” – development determined by their
own innate nature
 Innate-goodness view
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Evolution (Darwinism) & Child Development

Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882)
 Theory of Evolution
 2 important & related concepts: natural selection &
survival of the fittest
 Emphasizes the adaptive value of physical
characteristics/surroundings/ environment and behavior
 Researchers were prompted to study all aspects of
children’s behavior
 The birth of “the science of child psychology” or child
study
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Birth of Scientific Methodology
 Baby Biographies
 Charles Darwin (1877)
 Emphasizes observations on own children
and relatives
 From rudimentary observations to
improved methods
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Beginning of 20th century
 G. Stanley Hall pioneered the study of child
development
 Use questionnaire to study children
 Use scientific method
 Focus on adolescent development
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HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CHILD PYCHOLOGY?

Mental Testing Movement
 Alfred Binet (1857-1911)
 Binet & Theodore Simon took a normative
approach, to find a way to identify children
with learning problems who needed to be
placed in special classes
 Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test - 1916
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An emerging consensus
 All domains are interrelated.
 Normal development includes a wide range of
individual differences.
 Children help to shape their own development and
influence others’ responses to them.
 Historical and cultural contexts strongly influence
development.
 Early experience is important, but children can be
remarkably resilient.
 Development in childhood is connected to
development throughout the rest of the lifespan.
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Theories in
Developmental Psychology
What is a theory?


A theory is a set of logically related
concepts or statements, which seeks
to describe and explain development
and predict what kinds of behavior
may occur under certain conditions.
 An orderly, integrated set of
statements that:
 Describes
 Explains
 Predicts
Hypotheses are tentative
explanations or
predictions that can be
tested by research.
Benefits:

Explain the meaning of
an event/facts

Able to relate these
facts
behavior
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Theories
 Psychoanalytic
 Psychosexual (S. Freud)
 Psychosocial (E. Erickson)
 Learning
 Behavioral Learning
 Classical Conditioning (Pavlov)
 Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
 Social Learning (A. Bandura)
 Cognitive
 Cognitive Developmental Theory (J. Piaget)
 Socio-cultural (L. Vygotsky)
 Moral Development (Reasoning) (Kohlberg)
 Human Ecology System (U. Bronfenbrenner)
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Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality
Id
Ego
Superego
•Largest portion of the mind
•Unconscious, present at birth
•Source of biological needs & desires
•Conscious, rational part of mind
•Emerges in early infancy
•Redirects id impulses acceptably
•The conscience
•Develops from ages 3 to 6, from
interactions with caregivers
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Psychoanalytic
 Psychosexual (S. Freud)
 Psychosocial (E. Erickson)
* 8 stages of development
*Psychosexual stages
•Oral stage
•Anal stage
•Phallic
•Latency
•Genital
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy vs shame
Initiative vs guilt
Industry vs Inferiority
Identity vs Identity Confusion
Intimacy versus isolation
Generativity vs stagnation
Integrity vs despair
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Psychoanalytic
 Psychoanalytic theory proposes that morality
develops through humans' conflict between their
instinctual drives and the demands of society.
 Freud identified three parts of the personality that
become integrated during five stages
of development
 Id
 Ego
 Superego
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Personality Structure
superego
ego
ID
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Personality Structures
 ID (unconscious element)
 the largest portion  is the source of basic
biological needs and desires.
 EGO (semi-conscious element)
 the conscious  rational part of the personality,
emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s
impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways
 SUPEREGO (The conscious element that function
on the basis of morality).
 the conscience that develops between ages 3 and
6 through interactions with parents, who insist
that the child conform to the values of society.
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Freud Psychosexual stages:
 Oral stage [0- 1 year] –
 Mouth is the focus of stimulation &
interaction. Feeding & weaning are central
 Anal stage [1-3 year] –
 Anus as the focus of stimulation &
interaction. Elimination & toilet training is
central
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Freud Psychosexual stages:
 Phallic [3-6year]
 The genital is the focus of stimulation. Gender
role & moral development are central.
 Conflict between id & superego
 Children interested to know more different sexes,
babies etc.
 2 main conflict:
 Oedipus Conflict  son attracted to mother
 Electra Conflict  daughter attracted to father
 Penis envy
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Freud Psychosexual stages:
 Latency [6-12 year]
 A period of suspended sexual activities;
Energy shift to physical and intellectual
activities. Focus on achievement
 Genital [Adolescent – adulthood (12 &
above)]
 Genital are the focus of stimulation with the
onset of puberty
 Mature sexual relationship develop
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Erikson’s Psychosocial stages
Late Adulthood (60 above)
Integrity vs Despair
Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s)
Generativity vs Stagnation
Young Adulthood (20 -30’s)
Intimacy vs Isolation
Adolescent (12-19)
Identity vs Role Confusion
Middle childhood (6-11)
Industry vs Inferiority
Early Childhood (3-5)
Initiative vs Guilt
Toddler (1-2)
Infancy (0-1)
Autonomy vs Shame/doubt
Trust vs Distrust
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Behaviorism & Social Learning
Classical
Conditioning
(Pavlov)
Stimulus –
Response
Operant
Conditioning
(Skinner)
Reinforcers
(Reward) and
Punishments
Social Learning
(Bandura)
Modeling
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Behavioral Theory
 Classical Conditioning
 Operant Conditioning
(B.F. Skinner)
 Ivan Pavlov
• Stimulus & Response
 Learning based on association
of a stimulus that does not
ordinarily elicit a response with
another stimulus that does elicit
the response.
• Learning based on reinforcement
(punishment) or punishment
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
• Punishment
• Behavior modification
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Behavioral Theory
 Social Learning Theory
 Albert Bandura
 Modelling (Role model)
 Theory that behaviors are learned by
observing and imitating models
 Observational learning
 Models
 Importance of values and thoughts in
imitating behavior of a model
 Practical implications?
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Behaviorism & Social Learning
 Development results from learning
 Behaviorism – a mechanistic theory
 Continuous change
 Quantitative change
 Importance of the environment
 Associative learning
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Cognitive Theory
 Socio-Cultural Theory
 L. Vygotsky
 Jean Piaget
 Cognitive Development
•
• Sensorimotor
(0-2)
• Preoperational (2-6)
• Concrete Operational (6-11)
• Formal Operation (11-adulthood)
•
Community & culture influence on
development  Focus is the social, cultural,
and historical complex of which the child is
part.
Social Interaction
• Zone of proximal development –
The difference between what a child
can do alone and with help
• Scaffolding –Temporary support to
help a child master a task.
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
 Transmission of culture to new
generation
 Beliefs, customs, skills
 Social interaction necessary to
learn culture
 Cooperative dialogue with more
knowledgeable members of
society


Zone of proximal
Scaffolding SITINOR/FEM3101/SEPTEMBER 2013/PJJ
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Cognitive Theory
 Moral Development
 Kohlberg
 Paras 1: Moraliti Pra- konvensional (4-9 tahun)
 Orientasi dendaan dan patuh/taat
 Hedonisme Instrumental/Orientasi Egoistik
 Paras 2:Peringkat Konvensional (10-15 tahun)
 Moraliti “budak baik”
 Moraliti mengekalkan susunan sosial & autoriti
 Paras 3:Peringkat Pasca Konvensional
 Moraliti kontrak, hak individu dan undang-undang
secara demokrasi
 Orientasi prinsip-prinsip moral yang universal dan
beretika
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THE ECOLOGICAL-SYSTEMS
APPROACH
 Human Ecological System
 U. Bronfenbrenner
 View of development that sees the
individual as inseparable from the
social context
 Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological
theory
 Understanding processes and
contexts of development
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




Micro system
Meso system
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosyste
m
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Ecological Systems Theory
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RESEARCH METHODS IN
STUDYING CHILDREN
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Research methods
 Qualitative and quantitative research
 Scientific method – system of established
principles and processes of scientific inquiry
 Identifying a problem
 Formulating hypotheses
 Collecting data
 Analyzing the data
 Disseminating findings
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Sampling
 Groups of participants chosen to represent
the entire population
 The sample should adequately represent the
population under study
 Generalization
 Random selection
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Forms of data collection
 Naturalistic and laboratory observations
 Parental self-reports
 Clinical interview
 Open-ended interview
 Structured interview
 Questionnaire
 Psychophysiological Methods
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Systematic Observation

Observe respondent in their natural setting
 Naturalistic Observation

In the “field” or natural environment where
behavior happens
 Structured observation

Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of
interest

All participants have equal chance to display
behavior
 Participant observation

Incognito
 Record data
 Audio
 Video
 Manual
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Interviews
Clinical Interview
 Flexible,
conversational style
 Probes for
participant’s point of
view
Structured Interview
 Each participant is
asked same questions
in same way
 May use questionnaires,
get answers from
groups
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Basic research designs

Case studies
 Collect various information about a subject to be
studied (people/event)
 Make a conclusion about subject understudied.
 Ethnographic studies
 Participant observation
 Correlational studies –
 To examine the relationship between 2 variables
(independent and dependent variables)
 Research intended to discover whether a statistical
relationship between two variables exists
 Problems of control and interpretation of causality
 Survey - A study on respondent’s views  on certain
issues
 Use Questionnaires/Structured interview schedule
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Correlation Coefficients
Direction
Magnitude
 Size of the number between
0 and 1.
 Closer to one (positive or
negative) is a stronger
relationship
 Indicated by + or - sign.
 Positive (+) means, as one
variable increases, so does the
other
 Negative (-) means, as one
variable increase, the other
decreases.
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Correlations
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Experimental studies
 To examine the cause & effect of a phenomena
understudied
 Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which
the researcher manipulates variables to assess the
effect of one on the other.
 Independent variable - the condition over which
the experimenter has direct control
 Dependent variable - the condition that may or
may not change as a result of changes in the
independent variable
 Experimental group and control group
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Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent variable
 Experimenter changes,
or manipulates
 Expected to cause
changes in another
variable.
Modified Experiments:
Field Experiments
 Use rare opportunities for
natural assignment in
natural settings
Dependent variable
 Experimenter measures,
but does not manipulate
 Expected to be influenced
by the independent
variable
Natural Experiment
 Compare differences in
treatment that already
exist
 Groups chosen to match
characteristics as much as
possible
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Designs for Studying Development
Longitudinal
Same participants studied repeatedly at different
ages
Cross-sectional
People of differing ages all studied at the same
time
LongitudinalCross-sectional
Same groups of different-aged people studied
repeatedly as they change ages.
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Children’s Research Rights
 Protection from harm
 Right to Informed consent
 Knowledge of results
 Beneficial treatments
 Avoidance of deception
 Debriefing, providing a full account and
justification of research activities, should
take place with children, but does not
always work as well
 Right to privacy and confidentiality
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UNIT 2
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
• Reproductive systems
• Stages in prenatal development
• Context of development
• Influences on prenatal development
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The Female Reproductive System
 Uterus
 A muscular chamber about
the size and shape of a pear.
 Located in a woman's abdomen,
is a hollow, elastic reproductive
organ, where a baby develops
during pregnancy.
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Female anatomy
 The uterus - is a major
female hormoneresponsive
reproductive sex organ
 Within the uterus 
fetus develops during
gestation.
 The term uterus
=womb.
 One end, the cervix,
opens into the vagina;
the other is connected
on both sides to the
Fallopian tubes.
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
Sperm is the male reproductive cell
Sperm
Chief Characteristics:
1. Tightly packed tip (acrosome) that contains 23 chromosomes
that carry genetic information
2. Short neck region
3. Trail to propel it in its search for the ovum
4. Microscopic
Fact:
 Remains capable of fertilizing egg for 24-48 hours after
ejaculation
 Of 200 million sperm that enter the vagina, only about 200
survive the journey to the fallopian tubes, where fertilization
occurs
 Males, at birth, have in their testes those cells that will
eventually produce sperm
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Ovum (Egg)

The ovum is the female reproductive cell
Chief Characteristics:
1. Round
2. .01 mm in diameter
3. Consistency of stiff jelly
4. Contributes 23 chromosomes
Fact:
 Females already have 1-2 million primal eggs at birth
 Eggs usually fertilized about 12 hours after discharged
from the ovary or they die within 12-24 hours
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ovulation
• When a young woman
reaches puberty, she
begins to ovulate
• a process in which a
mature egg cell (also
called an ovum), ready
for fertilization by a
sperm cell, is released
from one of the ovaries
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 Her body prepares for a potential pregnancy every cycle,
whether or not she want to actually conceive.
 Under the influence of Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH), about 15 to 20 eggs start to mature in each ovary.
 Although it averages about two weeks, the process to
release an egg can take anywhere from about eight days
to a month or longer to complete.
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menstrual cycle
 Ovulation occurs 14 days
before the next
menstruation.
 As the average menstrual
cycle lasts 28 days
(starting with the first day
of one period and ending
with the first day of the
next menstrual period),
most women ovulate on
day 14.
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 A menstrual cycle can vary between 21 to 38 days.
 A woman is generally most fertile (able to become
pregnant) a few days before, during, and after
ovulation.
 The corpus luteum remains behind on the interior
ovarian wall, and starts releasing progesterone.
 Progesterone quickly stops the release of all other
eggs until the next cycle. The corpus luteum has a
finite lifespan, of about 12 to 16 days.
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Menstruation
 If the egg does not become fertilized as it
travels down the fallopian tube on its way
to the uterus, the endometrium (lining of
the uterus) is shed and passes through
the vagina (the passageway through
which fluid passes out of the body during
menstrual periods; also called the birth
canal), a process called menstruation.
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Pregnancy
 If the egg is fertilized by a
sperm cell as it travels down
the fallopian tube, then
pregnancy occurs, it
becomes attached to the
lining of the uterus
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 In order for conception to occur, though, there must
be three factors present:
 the egg,
 the sperm
 a medium in which the sperm can travel to reach
the fallopian tubes.
 Women produce cervical fluid under the influence
of increasing levels of estrogen in the first part of
the cycle.
 Sperms can live up to five days in fertile quality
cervical fluid
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3 Stages in prenatal development:
 Germinal stage
 Embryonic stage
 Fetal stage
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Conception: First phase of development –
Period of the zygote



The development of a single human being begins
with conception when a single sperm cell from
the male unites with an egg from a female and
forms a single cell called a zygote.
Once conception has occurred, the ovum
continues down the fallopian tube. Then, it
implants itself in the wall of its uterus.
This is the first phase of development and it is
known as the period of the zygote.
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Conception
The period of the zygote (Fertilization to 2 weeks)




This period lasts about 2 weeks.
The term zygote is used to refer to the organism throughout this
period.
In the early stages, the mass of cell is undifferentiated.
However, about four days after conception some differentiation begins,
at which point the organism is called blastocyst.
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Conception
The period of the zygote (Fertilization to 2 weeks)
• A blastocyst is a hollow ball of cells that
has developed from the fertilized egg.
• During this time, cells begin to differentiate.
• By the end of the period of the zygote, the
developing organisms has found food and
shelter in the uterus and developed into the
embryonic stage.
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Conception
The embryonic stage (2 to 8 weeks)


The second major phase of prenatal development
(the embryo) begins with completion of
implantation
It continues for another six weeks until the various
support structures are fully formed and all the major
organ systems have been laid down in at least
rudimentary form.
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Conception
The embryonic stage (2 to 8 weeks)


The embryo is especially vulnerable to interference with
healthy development.
This stage begins at week 3 and ends in the second month
(week 8) of conception.
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Conception
The embryonic stage (2 to 8 weeks)



The embryo’s circulatory is connected to the placenta through
the umbilical cord.
The placenta is connected to both the mother’s and the
embryo’s (fetus’s) blood system, but the two systems are not
directly connected.
Small molecules pass back and forth through this large
filtering system, but large ones cannot.
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Conception
The embryonic stage (2 to 8 weeks)


So nutrients such as oxygen, proteins, sugars, and vitamins from the
maternal blood pass through to the embryo or fetus, while digestive
wastes and carbon dioxide from the infant’s blood pass back through
to the mother, whose own body can eliminate them.
The period from the ninth week of conception until the end of
pregnancy is called the fetal stage or the period of the fetus. The
embryo is called fetus when the first bone cell appears.
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Conception
• Business Driven• Technology Oriented • Sustainable Development• Environmental Friendly
The period of the fetus (8 weeks to birth)



This is the longest prenatal period.
The seven months of the fetal stage involve primarily
a process of refining all the primitive organ systems
already in place.
At the end of the embryonic period, the main parts
exist in some basic form; the next seven month are
for the finishing process.
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Conception
• Business Driven• Technology Oriented • Sustainable Development• Environmental Friendly
The period of the fetus (8 weeks to birth)

During this phase, the organisms begins to increase rapidly in size, about
20 times its previous length; organs and body systems become more
complex.

This period is divided into second trimester and third trimester.

Table 2.1 displays milestones of prenatal development.

Figure 2.1 shows the growth of the brain during the prenatal period.
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Table 2.1 Milestones of Prenatal Development
Trimester
Period
Weeks
Length &
Weight
Major Development
1
Zygot
e
1-2
Embr
yo
3-4
¼ inch
A primitive brain and spinal cord
appear.
Heart, muscles, backbone, ribs and
digestive tract begin to develop.
5-8
1 inch;
1/7
ounce
Many external body forms and
internal organs form.
The sense of touch begins to develop,
and the embryo can move.
One-celled zygote multiplies and
forms a blastocyst.
Structures that feed and protect the
developing organism begin to form.
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Table 2.1 Milestones of Prenatal Development
Trimester
1
Period Weeks
Fetus
9-12
Length
&
Weight
Major Development
3
inches;
less
than 1
ounce
Rapid increase in size begins.
Nervous systems, organs and
muscles become organized and
connected.
New behavioral capacity such as
kicking, thumb sucking, mouth
opening and rehearsal of breathing
appear.
External genitals are well formed
& the fetus’s sex is evident.
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Table 2.1 Milestones of Prenatal Development
Trimester
Period
Weeks
Length
&
Weight
Major Development
2
Fetus
13-24
12
inches;
1.8
pounds
First fetal movement is usually felt by the
mother at about 16th weeks; bones begin to
develop; fairly complete ear is formed.
Weeks 20 - Hair growth begins; child is
very human-looking at this age and “thumb
sucking” may be seen.
Weeks 24 - Eyes are completely formed (but
closed); fingernails, sweat glands, and taste
buds are all formed; some fat deposit
beneath skin. The infant is capable of
breathing if born prematurely at this stage
but survival rate is still low for infants born
this early.
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Table 2.1 Milestones of Prenatal Development
Trimester
Period
Weeks
Length
&
Weight
Major Development
3
Fetus
25-38
20
inches;
7.5
pounds
Nervous system, blood, and breathing
systems are all well enough developed
to support life; premature born at this
stage have poor sleep/wake cycles and
irregular breathing, however.
Interconnections between individual
nerve cell (neurons) develop rapidly;
weight is added; general “finishing” of
body systems take place.
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Fertilization
• Prenatal development begins when the ovum and
sperm unite (i.e., fertilization), creating a new and
separate cell called the Zygote
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FIRST CELL DIVISION
Immediately the cell begins to duplicate, taking
approximately 30 hours to complete the first cell
division.
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BLASTOCYST
 At an increasingly faster rate, new cells are added until they form a
hollow, fluid-filled ball, called a blastocyst (about 4 or five days after
conception).
 Approximately 60 to 70 cells form the blastocyst.
 Those on the inside (called the embryonic disk) will become the new
organism whereas those on the outside will provide the protective
covering.
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IMPLANTATION
 Around the seventh or ninth day, the blastocyst implants itself into the
uterine lining.
 The protective covering quickly develops into the amnion, surrounding
the organism in amniotic fluid.
 A yolk sac also develops, producing blood cells until the liver, spleen,
and bone marrow is mature.
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EMBRYO: 5 WEEKS
8 WEEKS FROM
CONCEPTION
 The Period of the embryo lasts from about 2 weeks until about
the 8th week of pregnancy.
 During this time, the groundwork for all body structures and
organs is laid.
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Embryo: 6 Weeks
 Even before the mother knows she is pregnant:



the heart has begun to pump blood;
the muscles, backbone, and ribs have begun to appear;
and tiny buds have developed into arms, legs, fingers, and
toes.
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EMBRYO: 7 WEEKS
 By the 7th week, the liver and spleen begins producing blood
cells and the heart has developed separate chambers.
 At this time, the tiny organism shows sensitivity to touch and
freely moves about in the amniotic sac.
 However, at less than an inch long and only an ounce in weight,
the organism is still too tiny for any movements to be felt by
the mother.
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8 WEEKS
9 WEEKS
10 WEEKS
 By the end of the embryonic period, the internal organs as well as
external structures have become more distinct.
 Illustration: The development of the eyes.



"The eyes form on stems that have grown from either side of
the front of the brain out to the skin on the face
At first, the eyes are mere indentations on the side of the
head, but they develop rapidly through seven (top), eight
(middle), and 10 (bottom) weeks of pregnancy.
By three months, the eyelids form, and then close for a few
months over the newly formed eyes." (text by Your Growing
Child)
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FETUS – 3 MONTHS
 The 3rd month of pregnancy marks the end of the first trimester for the
mother, and the end of the first month of the Fetal Period.
 The fetal period is the longest prenatal period, lasting from the ninth
week to the end of pregnancy.

During the third month, the organs, muscles, and nervous system become
connected and organized.

The fetus can kick, bend its arms, make a fist, open its mouth, and can
even suck its thumb.

The skin of the fetus is thin and transparent. Thus, the internal organs
and features can still easily be seen with an internal camera
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11-14 weeks
FETUS - FOUR MONTH
 During the 4th month - vernix (a white, cheeselike substance)
covers the entire body of the fetus.
 The vernix protects the skin from chapping during the several
months that the fetus is in the amniotic fluid.
 A white, downy hair called lanugo also covers the fetus' body,
which helps the vernix stick to the skin.
 The fetus has grown large enough that the movements can
sometimes be felt by the mother. Often felt like a flutter or a
"flip-flop“. These first movements that can be felt by the mother
is called quickening.
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FETUS – 5 MONTHS
 At 22 weeks, the fetus weighs a little over 1 pound, and is about 1 foot
in length.
 At this time, the movements can clearly be felt by the mother and by
others who place their hands over the mother's abdomen.
 The fetus also shows a sensitivity to light and can be stimulated and
irritated. However, it still has a long way to go before it is mature
enough to survive outside of the womb. Although there are a few cases
of infants being born and surviving at this time, the chance of survival
(and without later complications), is very slim.
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FETUS – 6 MONTHS
 The 6th month marks the beginning of the third trimester for the
mother. If born during this trimester, the fetus has a chance survival.
 The point in which it can first survive is referred to as the age of
viability and occurs sometime between 22 and 26 weeks.
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FETUS – 7 MONTHS
 At only 3-4 pounds, the 7 month old fetus has yet another 3-4
pounds to go before reaching the average 7.5 pounds.
 During this time, the brain continues to develop at at
increasingly fast rate.
 By 7 months, the fetus clearly responds to sounds outside of the
womb, developing a preference for the tone and rythm of its
mother's voice.
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FETUS – 8 MONTHS
 By the 8th month, the fetus has little room for large movements.
During this month, a layer of fat is added that will assist with
temperature regulation.
 The lungs however, still remain immature. If born at this time,
the infant will likely require some help with breathing.
 It is not until the 9th month that the lungs are mature enough to
regulate breathing without assistance.
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A CHILD IS BORN
 One minute, and again at five minutes after birth,
the infant is assessed using the APGAR scale.
 On average, the newborn infant weighs 7.5 pounds
and is 20 inches long.
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BABY – 3 WEEKS OLD
 A majority of the newborn's first month is spent sleeping,
waking every few hours to be fed.
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Embrio : blastosis burrows into
the uterine lining
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 As soon as the fertilized egg burrows into the lining, it starts
releasing a pregnancy hormone, HCG (Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin) which sends a message back to the corpus
luteum left behind on the ovarian wall.
 HCG signals the corpus luteum to remain alive beyond its
usual maximum of 16 days and continuing to release
progesterone long enough to sustain the nourishing lining.
 After several months, the placenta takes over, not only
maintaining the endometrium, but providing all the oxygen
and nutrients the fetus needs to thrive.
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Cells Division
 There are two type of cell division

 Mitosis and meiosis
 Reproductive cells divide through meiosis process,
while all other body cells divide through the
mitosis process
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Cells Division
 Mitosis is cell division that results in the duplication of cells; the
daughter cells genetic copies of the parent cell. This cell multiplication
allows for replacement of old cells, tissue repair, growth and
development.
 Mitosis
 The creation of new cells through duplication of chromosomes &
divisions of cells  cells duplicates (From 1 24  16 32,
etc)
 Cells developed into organs, brain, heart etc.
 Growth & Development
 You grew from a zygote, or fertilized egg (the fusion of two cells: an
egg and a sperm) into an organism with trillions of specialized cells.
 Mitosis is the process that enabled you to grow and develop after
that fateful meeting of ovum and sperm became ‘you’.
 Cell Replacement
 Cells must divide in order for an organism to grow and develop, but
cell division is also required for maintenance, cell turnover and
replacement.
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Meiosis is Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation
 In sexually reproducing organisms, some cells are able to divide by another
method called meiosis.
 Meiosis is a complex process by which gametes form; involves duplication
and division of reproductive cells and their chromosomes.
 The number of chromosomes in cells divide into two’s, and each set of
cell will receive 1 from each sets of chromosomes  makes up 23
sets.
 This type of cell division results in the production of gametes (eggs or
sperm).
 Meiosis is much more complex than mitosis involves the duplication and
subsequent division of chromosomes, meiosis involves two divisions of
genetic material. As is the case in mitosis, in meiosis the cell duplicates its
chromosome number prior to beginning cellular division. Then nuclear
division, the sorting out of the genetic material, begins, and unfolds over the
course of 2 cellular divisions that result in 4 gametes.
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Meiosis is Sex Cell (Gamete) Formation
 Gametes & Gonads
 Gametes are haploid (1n) with half the number of chromosomes
than the progenitor cell that they arose from. These haploid sex
cells arise in specialized reproductive tissue called the gonads.
Ovaries (female gonads) and testes (male gonads) are the sites of
meiosis.
 Fertilization & Development
 Sexual reproduction results in the merging of sperm and egg at
fertilization, and brings the chromosome count back to the 2n
diploid number necessary for a zygote to have complete genetic
information; 2 sets of genetic instructions in 23 pairs of
chromosomes.
 As cells divide, the zygote develops and grows into an embryo,
fetus and beyond. These 23 pairs of chromosomes are duplicated
with every cell division, and are the genetic material inside nearly
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What's the Difference between Mitosis & Meiosis?
 Mitosis is how the cells of our body make
more cells for growth, development and
repair.
 Meiosis is how our body makes sex cells,
or gametes (eggs or sperm).
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Mechanisms of Heredity
 The Genetic Code
 Basis of heredity is a chemical called deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), which contains all the inherited material passed from
biological parents to children
 Every cell except the sex cells has 23 pairs of chromosomes-46 in all
 Genetic action that triggers growth of body and brain is often
regulated by hormones
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Mechanisms of heredity
 The genetic code
 DNA and chromosomes
 Human genome
 23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell (46 total)
– except sex cells


Meiosis – division in sex cells (23 single chromosomes)
Mitosis – division in body cells
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Genetic Code
 Genetic information are kept in chromosomes 
ie. A long & complex set of DNA molecules.
 Genes is a segment of DNA molecules  contains
instructions for making protein.
 Human being is said to have 100 trillions of cells
in the body  with specific functions; and is
distributed through 46 chromosomes, ie. 23 from
father & 23 from mother.
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Genetic Foundation
 Genotype (genetic makeup)
 Phenotype (observable characteristics)
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Hereditary composition of the zygote
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What determines sex?
 Autosomes – chromosome pairs 1- 22
 Sex chromosomes – 23rd pair of chromosomes
 XX = female
 Xy = males
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Determination of a child’s sex
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What Determines Sex?
 Sex chromosomes are either X chromosomes or Y
chromosomes
 When an ovum (X) is fertilized by an X-carrying sperm,
the zygote formed is XX, a female
 When an ovum (X) is fertilized by a Y-carrying sperm,
the resulting zygote is XY, a male
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Choromosomes
 Boy or girl?
 Chromosomes determine sex :
 23 pairs of sex chromosomes
 Female : XX pairs of sex chromosomes
 Male
: XY pairs of sex chromosomes
FATHER=XY
XY (male)
MOTHER=XX
XX (female)
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Patterns of Genetic Transmission
 When an offspring receives two contradictory
traits, only one of them, the dominant one
shows itself
 The expression of a recessive trait, occurs
only when a person receives the recessive
traits from both parents
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Dominant and recessive inheritance
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 What Causes Multiple Births?
 Dizygotic (two-egg) twins=fraternal twins
 Monozygotic (one-egg) twins=identical twins
 The rise in multiple births is due in part to a trend
toward delayed childbearing
 Infertility
 Inability to conceive a baby after 12 to 18 months
of trying
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Genetic and Chromosomal Abnormalities
 Some defects are due to abnormalities in genes or
chromosomes, which may result from mutations
 Many disorders arise when an inherited predisposition
interacts with an environmental factor, either before
or after birth
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Sex linked inheritance of a birth defect
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Nature and Nurture
 Some Characteristics Influenced by Heredity and
Environment
 Adopted children's IQs are consistently closer to the IQs of
their biological mothers than to those of their adoptive
parents and siblings.
 Monozygotic twins generally look alike; they are also more
concordant than dizygotic twins in their risk for such medical
disorders as hypertension (high blood pressure), heart
disease, stroke, rheumatoid arthritis, peptic ulcers, and
epilepsy
 Heredity seems to exert a strong influence on general
intelligence and also on specific abilities
 A strong hereditary influence on schizophrenia and autism,
among other disorders;
found in families
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The birth process
 Stages of childbirth
 First stage
 Second stage
 Third stage
 Fourth stage
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The Baby’s
Adaptation to Labor
and Delivery
Newborn’s
appearance
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The Newborn Baby

Newborn are called Neonate.
 First four weeks of life (neonatal period)
 A time of transition from the uterus, where a fetus is
supported entirely by the mother  to an independent
existence.
 When neonate are first born:
 Covered by fluid from amniotic sac
 Blood from placenta
 Brownish fluid from own faeces.
 Covered with lanugo (fuzzy prenatal hair)
 Covered with vernix caseosa (cheesy varnish)
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The Newborn Baby
 Size and Appearance
 New babies have distinctive feature a large head
and a receding chin
 On the head  Fontanels (the soft spots)
 Newborns have a pinkish cast  skin so thin that it
barely covers the capillaries through which blood
flows.
 Boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than girls,
and a firstborn child is likely to weigh less at birth
than later-borns
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The Newborn Baby
 Weight :
2.8 -3.2 kg
 Length :
51-53 cm (Boy > girl)
 Head Circumference:
30-33 cm
 Breathing:


Initially fast, short & irregular
Later  more stable & with rhythm
 Blood pressure become stable in 10 days.
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Is the Baby Healthy?

Medical and Behavioral Screening
1.
2.
3.

Apgar Scale
The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment
Scale
Checks are also done for any structural or
physical deformities (eg. spinal defect, cleft
palate)
Silver nitrate or tetracycline is usually dropped
into neonate eyes to prevent from bacterial
infection while passing through birth canal.
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Apgar Scale
 Apgar Scale is a standard measurement of a
newborn’s condition
 Introduced by Dr. Virginia Apgar
 Access newborn
 1 min after birth
 5 min after birth
 Assess:
 Appearance (colour)
 Pulse (heart beat rate)
 Grimace (reflex)
 Activity (muscle tone)
 Respiration (breathing)
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APGAR SCALE
Sign
0
1
2
Appearance
Blue, pale
Body pink,
extremities blue
Entirely Pink
Pulse
Absent
Slow (below 100)
Rapid (over 100)
Grimace
No response Grimace
Coughing,
sneezing,
crying
Activity
Limp
Weak, inactive
Strong, active
Respiration
Absent
Irregular, slow
Good, Crying
Score: Above 7 = (good/normal); 4 -7 = average, need monitoring
3 & Below = need immediate attention, high risk situation
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Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale
 The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment
Scale (NBAS) (Dr. Berry Brazelton) serves 3
purpose:
 As an index of neurological integrity after
birth
 To predict future development
 To assesses neonates' responsiveness to their
physical and social environment
 Screening done on 3rd day and repeat again
after several days.
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Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment
Scale (NBAS)
 Test on four distinct areas:
 Social behavior (interactive behaviors in the
home)
 Motor behaviors (reflexes & muscle
activities)
 Control of physiology (baby’s ability to quiet
himself)
 Stress response (startle reaction)
 High score  a neurologically well developed infant
 Low score  a sluggish infant who need help in
responding to social situations, or possible brain damage.
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Babies In-born Reflexes
 Reflexes  an inborn, automatic response to a particular
form of stimulation.
 Full term newborns come equipped with a variety of
reflexes for use in dealing efficiently with stimuli
present in their environment.
 Some reflexes are necessary for survival (eg. Rooting &
sucking reflexes)
 Reflexes are probably genetic in origin & include a timing
mechanism that allows them to fade away after a period of
time.
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Examples of Newborn Reflexes
 Eye Blink
 Moro
 Withdrawal
 Palmar Grasp
 Rooting
 Tonic Neck
 Sucking
 Stepping
 Swimming
 Babinski
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In-born Reflexes
Reflexes
Eliciting Stimulus
Response
Developmental
duration
Babinski
Gentle stroke along
Toes fan out: big toe
sole of foot (heel - toe) reflexes
Disappears by
end of first
year
Moro
Sudden lost of
support
Disappear in
6 months
Palmer
Grasp
Rod of finger pressed Object grasp
against infant’s palm
Disappear in
3-4 months
Rooting
Object lightly brushes
infant’s cheek
Disappear in
3-4 months
Sucking
Insert Finger in mouth Rhythmic sucking
Walking
Held baby upright.
Infant step forward as if Disappear in
Sole of feet placed on walking
3-4 months
hard surface
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Arms extended, then
brought towards each
other
Baby turns towards
object and attempts to
suck
Disappear in
3-4 months
Rooting
 Stroke cheek near corner
of mouth or object
brushes the area
 Infant respond by turning
head toward stimulation
 Disappears at 3 weeks
when child begins to be
able to voluntarily turn
head
 Helps infant find nipple
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Moro Reflex
 Hold infant horizontally on
back and let head drop
slightly or produce sudden
loud sound against surface
supporting infant
 Infant response is to make
an embracing motion by
arching back, extending
legs, throwing arms
outward and then bringing
them in toward the body
 Disappear at 6 months
 Probably in human
evolution helped baby cling
to mother
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Palmer Grasp
 Spontaneous grasp of
adult’s finger
 Disappears at 3-4
months to allow
reaching and grasping
 Prepares infant for
voluntary grasping
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Tonic Neck Reflex
 Turn baby's head to one side
while lying on back
 Infant responds by lying in a
“fencing position” with one
arm extended in front of
eyes on side to which head
is turned other arm is flexed
 Disappears at 4 months
 May prepare infant for
voluntary reaching
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Pattern of Growth
 Children grow faster during the first years, especially
during the first few months.
 This rapid growth rate tapers off during the second and
third years
 Physical growth and development follow the maturational
principles of the cephalocaudal principle and proximodistal
principle.
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 Genes interact with environment, i.e.
nutrition and living conditions,  general
health and well-being
 Well-fed, well-cared-for children grow taller
and heavier than less well nourished and
nurtured children
 Better medical care, immunization and
antibioticsbetter health
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Growth and Nutrition
 Nourishment
 Breast milk is almost always the best food for
newborns and is recommended for at least the first 12
months
 Parents can avoid obesity and cardiac problems in
themselves and in their children by adopting a more
active lifestyle for the entire family--and to breastfeed
their babies
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The Brain
 First 3 years of life is critical to baby’s brain
development.
 Before & after birth  brain growth is fundamental to
future development.
 It is estimated that about 250,000 brain cells are form
every minute in the uterus.
 By birth, almost 100 billion nerve cell are formed, but not
fully develop.
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Molding the Brain
The Role of Experience
 Smiling, babbling, crawling, walking, and talking are
possible due to rapid development of the brain, particularly
the cerebral cortex
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…BRAIN
 Each part of the brain is very important in infuencing a child
development  integration between child emotions and behavior.
Middle brain: Limbic System
• Covers motivation, emotions, &
long term memory, aggressive
behavior, body temperature,
hunger, nerve system
activities, hormon secretion
Brain stem

Contro process such as
breathing, heartbeat muscle
movement, kidney process,
reflex behavior, sleep,
arousal, attention,
balance/movement etc.
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Outer Brain: Cortex &
neocortex
• Divided into
lobes/sections
(folds) with specific
functions.
• Placement of
‘intelligence’ & higer
mental process,
learning, memory,
thinking, language
(last to develop)
• Also control vision,
hearing, inventing.
Regions of the Cerebral Cortex
Thin layer on the brain’s surface that
include lobes or sections:
 Occipital lobe
 Process vision.
 Temporal Lobe
 Process hearing
 Parietal Lobe
 Process sensory stimuli
 Frontal Lobe
 Critical thinking & problem
solving
 Frontal cortex  area of the cortex
that controls personality and the
ability to carry out plans
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Molding the Brain: The Role of Experience
 Early experience can have lasting effects on
emotional development and the capacity of the
central nervous system to learn and store
information
 Sometimes corrective experience can make up for
past deprivation
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Brain and Neurons
...OTAK & NEURON
 First 3 years of life  children’s brain are actively
building and developing connections between the
neurons cells.
 Connections are developed when the brain are
actively receiving stimulus  process between
receiving and sending impulses between the cells.
 Through axons/dendrites  send signals to other
neurons & receive incoming message through
connection called synapses.
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Infant States of Arousal
 States of arousal are different degrees of sleep and
wakefulness
 Infants move in and out of 5 states throughout the day and
night:





Regular sleep
Irregular sleep
Drowsiness
Alert Activity
Waking activity and crying
 Striking individual differences in daily rhythms exist that
affect parents’ attitudes toward and interactions with baby.
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Ways to Soothe a Crying Baby
 Hold on shoulder and
rock or walk
 Swaddle
 Pacifier
 Ride in carriage, car,
swing
 Combine methods
 Let cry for short time
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Adjustments to Parenthood






Physical
Schedule
Financial
Time
Gender roles
Parents’ relationship
 Pre-birth counseling
 Interventions for high-risk couples
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Early Sensory Capacities
 Touch
 Hearing
 Vision
 Taste
 Smell
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Touch and Pain
 Touch seems to be the first sense to develop
 Sensitivity to touch, pain, and temperature change is well-
developed at birth.
 Pain experienced during the neonatal period may sensitize
an infant to later pain, perhaps by affecting the neural
pathways that process painful stimuli
 Relieve pain with anesthetics, sugar, gentle holding
 Reflexes reveal sensitivity to touch, for example touch on
mouth, palms, soles, genitals
 Touch helps stimulate physical and emotional development.
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Newborn Senses of Taste and Smell




Prefer sweet tastes at birth
Quickly learn to like new tastes
Have odor preferences from birth
Can locate odors and identify mother
by smell from birth
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Taste
 Babies are born with the ability to communicate
their taste preferences to caregivers.
 Infant facial expressions indicate they can
distinguish among several tastes.
 Newborns' rejection of bitter tastes is probably
another survival mechanism, since many bitter
substances are toxic
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Smell
 The responsiveness of infants to the smell of certain foods is
similar to that of adults  showed that some odor
preferences are innate.
 A newborn infant is attracted to the odor of her own
mother’s lactating breast  helps to find food source and to
identify own mother a survival mechanism.
 Newborns can identify the location of an unpleasant odor
and turn head away.
 A preference for pleasant odors seems to be learned in utero
and during the first few days after birth
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Studies conducted: Smell and Taste
 Lipsitt, Engen & Kye (1963) : Baby showed negative response
to the smell of ammonia.
 Steiner : Baby showed different facial expression when
exposed to different type of scent.
 Mac Farlane (1977): Baby can differentiate between own
mother’s milk and other mothers’ milk.
 Schmidt & Beauchamp (1988) : Baby’s ability to smell is
almost equivalent to a 3 years old ability to smell.
 Harris & friends: By aged 4 months old, baby like the taste of
salt
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• Baby
likes the
smell of:
• Banana,
• Margerine
• Tangerine
• Baby
dislikes the
smell of:
• Amonia
• Rotten egg
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Hearing
 Well developed at birth - sensitive to voices and biologically






prepared to learn language
Hearing is functional before birth  ability to discrimination
sound develops rapidly after birth. E.g. Infants respond with
changes in heart rate to loud sounds (even in the womb)
Can hear wide range of sounds but are more responsive to some
than others – i.e. prefer complex sounds to pure tones
Newborns prefer complex sounds such as voices and noises to
pure tones - learn sound patterns within days
Newborns prefer speech that is high-pitched and expressive.
There are only a few speech sounds that newborns cannot
discriminate, and their ability to perceive speech sounds outside
their language is more precise than an adult’s.
Hearing is a key to language development  thus hearing
impairments should be identified as early as possible
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Developments in Hearing
4 – 6 months
6 months
Sense of musical phrasing
“Screen out” sounds from non-native
languages
Recognize familiar words, natural
7 – 9 months phrasing in native language
10 months
Can detect words that start with weak
syllables
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Studies conducted:
Hearing
 De Casper & Fifer (1980): Baby can differentiate
mother’s voices from others  thru’ baby sucking
pattern.
 Birnhold & Benacerraf (1983): 28th week baby showed
his/her response thru facial expression.
 Wertheimer (1961) : Baby able to follow source of
sound through the “clicker” test.
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Vision
 Vision - the least developed sense at birth
 Newborns cannot focus their eyes very well and their





visual acuity  fineness of discrimination, is limited
However, newborns explore their environment by
scanning it for interesting sights & tracking moving
objects.
They can’t yet discriminate colors but color vision
will improve in a couple of months.
Visual perception is poor at birth  but improves to
20/100 by age 6 months
Binocular vision using both eyes to focus
Perception of depth & distance at 4 or 5 months
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Infants’ Scanning of Faces
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Face-like Stimuli
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Studies conducted: Sight
 Langlois & friends (1990): Babies are more attracted to
attractive and beautiful human faces.
 Fantz (1993): Babies prefer to look at pictures of
human.
 Aslin (1987): 4 days old babies can differentiate
between green and red.
 Babies prefer blue and red as compared to other
colors.
 Gibson & Walk (1960): Visual cliff experiment. 6 mth
babies has already develop in-dept perception in
visual.
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Steps in Pattern Perception
3 weeks
Poor contrast sensitivity.
Prefer large simple patterns
2 months
Can detect fine-grained detail. Prefer
complex patterns.
4 months
Can detect patterns even if boundaries are
not really present
12 months
Can detect objects if two-thirds of drawing
is missing
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Steps in Depth Perception
Birth – 1
month
Sensitivity to motion cues
2–4
months
Sensitivity to binocular cues
5 –12
months
Sensitivity to pictorial cues.
Wariness of heights
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Improvements in Vision
Brain development helps infants
reach adult levels of vision skills:
 2 months: Focus and color vision
 6 months: acuity, scanning &
tracking
 6–7 months: depth perception
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Integrating Sensory Information
 By 1 month, can integrate sight and touch
 By 4 months, can integrate sight and
sound
 4- and 7-month-olds can match facial
appearance (boy or man) with sound of
voice
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Motor Development
 Maturity affect infant perceptual and motor abilities.
 Milestones of Motor Development
 Babies first learn simple skills and then combine them into increasingly
complex systems of action
 Week 1 : Motor ability progress
 Month 1: Chin lift
 Month 2: Reach for object
 Denver Developmental Screening Test measures:
 Gross motor skills (those using large muscles), such as rolling over and
catching a ball, and
 Fine motor skills (using small muscles), such as grasping a rattle and
copying a circle.
 Language development (for example, knowing the definitions of
words)
 Personality and social development (such as smiling spontaneously
and dressing without help).
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Motor Development
 Newborn are not able to control their body
movement  no coordination.
 Most movements are due to inborn reflexes
(rooting, moro, palmer grasp etc)
 Humans begin to walk later than other
species, possibly because babies' heavy heads
and short legs make balance difficult
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Milestone in motor develpment
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Motor Development
How Motor Development Occurs:
Maturation in Context
 According to Thelen, normal babies develop the
same skills in the same order because they are built
approximately the same way and have similar
physical challenges and needs
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Motor Development
Cultural Influences on Motor Development
 Chances to explore their surroundings motor
development likely to be normal
 Some cultures actively encourage early
development of motor skills
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Motor Development
Training Motor Skills Experimentally
 Gesell concluded that children perform certain
activities when they are ready, and training gives no
advantage
 Interaction of biology and environment are
involved in infant motor development
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Social development
 Baby's ability to interact with other people
 Develops thru regular interaction with babies,:
 Feeding
 Cleaning
 Caring/loving
 Newborn can imitate facial expression.
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Attachment
 What is attachment?
 The most important form of social development that
occurs during infancy is ATTACHMENT, the positive
emotional bond that develops between a child and a
particular individual.
 Bowlby viewed attachment as based on infant's needs for
safety and security (especially from the mother)
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Infant Attachment
 Attachment
 an infant responds positively to specific others,
feels better when they are close, and seeks them
out when frightened.
 Attachment provides
 a sense of security to the child
 information about the environment
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Infant Attachment
 Critical for allowing the infant to explore the world
 Having a strong, firm attachment provides a safe base
from which the child can gain independence.
 Attachment: adaptive
 suggests that the tendency to form relationships is at
least partly biologically based.
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Infant Attachment
 Mary Ainsworth (1978) identified three major
attachment styles: Secure  strong bonding
 Avoidant  negative bonding
 Anxious/ambivalent  display a combination of
positive and negative bonding
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