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Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence is the document that announced the colonies were free from British rule. It is
an important document in the history of the United States.
The Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in
1776 to create a document that would declare the 13
colonies’ freedom from Great Britain. The Congress assigned
a five-person committee—Benjamin Franklin, Thomas
Jefferson, John Adams, Robert Livingston, and Roger
Sherman—to work on the Declaration of Independence.
Thomas Jefferson wrote the first draft because he was the
best writer in the group. His draft was edited by the Congress
and was adopted on July 4, 1776.
Declaring Rights
The Declaration of Independence, using a phrase that was
borrowed from the writings of John Locke and revised, states
that the government is meant to protect the rights of the governed. Here is a sentence from the first part of the
Declaration.
"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with
certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness."
The Declaration says that the government runs based on the “consent of the governed.” Locke wrote that citizens
have the right or even the obligation to overthrow the government if it does not protect their rights. The idea of
seeking independence from England had been expressed in Thomas Paine’s Common Sense.
Listing Grievances
The Declaration of Independence lists the grievances (complaints) the colonists had against the British government
and King George III. It tried to show that Britain had abused its power and could no longer rule over the colonies.
Some examples of abuse of power include:
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placing heavy taxes
not allowing representation in Parliament
creating unfair acts and laws
seizing ships and cargo
making colonists house British soldiers
sending colonists back to Britain
Stating Independence
The Declaration of Independence reminded the king that the colonists tried to ask him for help. He ignored their
requests, so the colonies declared that all ties to Britain were cut.
Although the Continental Army was fighting on familiar territory and was led by George Washington (who was
able train the undisciplined militia into an army), the colonists needed help from other nations. The Declaration of
Independence helped gather support for the Revolutionary War. The new nation asked for France’s help, and
France gave the United States military assistance.
The ideas of the Declaration of Independence were attractive to many groups. Women were likely to support the
Declaration of Independence because they hoped the Revolution would lead to equal voting rights. Former slaves
also supported the new government by joining the Continental Army.
U.S. Constitution
The first 20 years of the United States government was full of issues and conflicts. From the Bill of Rights to the
Election of 1800, from the Judiciary Act to the formation of two political parties, the United States experienced
change, confusion, and the establishment of the federal government as the supreme power in this new country.
A Two-Party System
As George Washington prepared to leave the Presidency, two political parties appeared on the scene: the
Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson.
The Federalists emerged in the 1790s with Alexander Hamilton in the lead. Federalists supported a strong
central government and believed in a broad interpretation of the Constitution through the Elastic Clause.
Federalists also supported Hamilton in his creation of a national bank and his desire for the U.S. to pay back its
debts from the Revolutionary War.
The Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, were started as an opposition to the Federalists. The
Democratic-Republicans supported a weak national government that left the states to make major decisions, and
they believed in a narrow interpretation of the Constitution. They opposed the creation of a national bank and
many other issues that Alexander Hamilton supported.
Important Events and Issues from 1789 to 1800
Judiciary Act of 1789
This act set up the national court system, which is made up of circuit courts, district courts, and the Supreme
Court, according to the Constitution.
Bill of Rights
Also known as the first 10 amendments of the constitution, these amendments were passed within two years of
the date they were written.
Whiskey Rebellion, 1794
In 1791, Congress passed a tax on whiskey made in the United States, which angered the farmers who sold
whiskey on the frontier. They thought it was unfair and refused to pay it. In 1794, Alexander Hamilton sent troops
to Pennsylvania to get farmers to follow the law.
Alien and Sedition Acts
In 1798, Congress passed four laws known as the Alien and Sedition Acts, which were directed at the
Democratic-Republican party and its supporters. The Alien Act increased the number of years required to live in
the U.S. before becoming a U.S. citizen from five years to 14. The Sedition Act made it illegal for U.S. citizens to
say or write critical remarks about the government.
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison wrote papers that protested these acts. They argued that states had a right
to declare them null and void. The state legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia passed resolutions saying they could
declare federal laws null and void. The Federalists did not agree with the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions
because they thought only the Supreme Court could declare a law unconstitutional. This issue of state power vs.
national power was not resolved until later.
Election of 1800
Before 1804, the president was elected by having the most electoral votes, and the person with the second-most
votes became vice president. In 1800, Thomas Jefferson and his running mate Aaron Burr received the same
number of votes, with current President John Adams coming in third and losing the election. The Federalistdominated House of Representatives, which then had the right to select the president, almost elected Aaron Burr in
order to deny the presidency to Thomas Jefferson. They eventually voted to elect Jefferson after Alexander
Hamilton convinced them that Burr was a worse choice. In 1804, the 12th Amendment was passed, separating the
voting for president and vice president.
Marbury v. Madison
At the end of John Adams term, he appointed his supporters to positions as judges and court officers. They were
called "Midnight Judges." They did not receive their documentation to begin their positions before Adams left
office. Newly elected President Jefferson instructed Secretary of State James Madison not to give appointees their
papers. One appointee, William Marbury, sued Madison for his papers. The case, Marbury v. Madison, made it to
the Supreme Court in 1803. There, Chief Justice John Marshall stated the opinion that the Court did not have the
power to make Madison give Marbury his papers. The Court ruled that the part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that
granted the Court the power to do so was unconstitutional. It was the first time the Supreme Court declared an act
of Congress unconstitutional.
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the land. It establishes principles that guarantee the
government will not overstep its power, but it still gives the government enough authority to carry out its
responsibilities.
Popular sovereignty is the concept that governmental power is given with the consent of the people. In the United
States, the Constitution mandates that certain political officials are elected into office, and while all officials are
able to exercise power, they are still held accountable to the people.
Individual rights were a concern for many early Americans, who did not want the United States government to
infringe on their rights as they felt Britain had. Most individual rights we have are listed in the Bill of Rights,
which became the first ten amendments to the Constitution.
Limited government implies that legal restrictions are placed on governmental power. Usually, governmental
power is curtailed by a written document, such as the U.S. Constitution. This idea is also closely related to
individual rights. The Tenth Amendment declares that state governments and individuals—not the central
government—have rights to any powers not specifically enumerated to the central government. Furthermore, the
Constitution lists further specific powers that the central government does not have.
Federalism is the constitutional principle that the central government—also called the federal government—must
share power with state and local governments. By giving state and local authorities responsibility for their areas,
the central government can still fulfill its national responsibilities while being limited from attaining too much
control.
Republicanism relates to the form of democratic government in which the people are represented by elected
leaders. At the time when the United States Constitution was written, republicanism was an alternative to the
monarchy that existed in England. Republican government derives its power from the people and from
constitutional law.
Separation of powers is a key principle established in the Constitution. The failed Articles of Confederation had
taught Americans that the central government needed some power, but many still did not want to see one leader (or
group of leaders) completely dominate the country. Instead, they divided responsibilities among three branches of
government: executive, legislative, and judicial.
Checks and balances are related to separation of powers. Checks and balances were set by the Constitution to
grant the three government branches certain powers over each other. For example, the president of the United
States is the head of the executive branch and has certain powers over the Congress, who makes up the legislative
branch. If Congress attempts to pass a bill that the president does not agree with, the president can veto the bill,
hindering it from becoming a law.
Federal Government
As designated by the U.S. Constitution, the Federal Government has three branches: legislative, executive, and
judicial.
Legislative Branch -The legislative branch of the U.S. government is made up of the Congress. Congress is made
up of two chambers, the House of Representatives and the Senate. The legislative branch is
responsible for making laws. Members of the House of Representatives are elected to serve
two-year terms, and senators are elected to serve six-year terms. The House is presided over
by the Speaker of the House, who is elected by colleagues, and the Senate is presided over by
the vice president. Each state has two senators, but the number of representatives in the
House is determined by the state's population.
Executive Branch -The executive branch of the U.S. government is made up of the president, vice president, and
the many executive departments. It is the responsibility of the executive branch to enforce the
laws created by the legislative branch. Also, the president has veto power. There are fifteen
cabinet level departments of the executive branch which are Agriculture, Commerce,
Defense, Education, Energy, Health and Human Services, Homeland Security, Housing and
Urban Development, Interior, Justice, Labor, State, Transportation, Treasury, and Veterans
Affairs. The leaders of these departments are members of the Cabinet and serve as policy
advisers to the U.S. President.
Judicial Branch -The judicial branch of the U.S. government consists of a system of courts spread throughout
the country, headed by the Supreme Court of the United States. The judicial branch is
responsible for interpreting laws and determining whether they are constitutional or not.
Checks and Balances -A system of limits imposed by the U.S. Constitution on all branches of government by
granting each branch the right to amend or void certain actions of other branches.
The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the land. It established principles that guaranteed the
government would not overstep its power, but it still gave the government enough authority to carry out its
responsibilities.
Popular sovereignty is the right people have to elect their leaders. In concept, the leaders derive their right to rule
from the will of the people. The Constitution mandates that certain political officials are elected into office, and,
while all officials are able to exercise power, they are still held accountable to the people.
Individual rights were a concern for many early Americans, as they did not want the United States government to
infringe on their rights as they felt Britain had. Most individual rights we have are listed in the Bill of Rights,
which became the first ten amendments to the Constitution.
Limited government is closely related to individual rights. The Tenth Amendment declares that state governments
and individuals—not the central government—have rights to any powers not specifically enumerated to the central
government. Furthermore, the Constitution lists further specific powers that the central government does not have.
Federalism is the constitutional principle that the central government—also called the federal government—must
share power with state and local governments. By giving state and local authorities responsibility for their areas,
the central government can still fulfill its national responsibilities while being limited from attaining too much
control.
Republicanism relates to the form of democratic government in which the people are represented by elected
leaders. At the time when the United States Constitution was written, republicanism was an alternative to the
monarchy that existed in England. Republican government derives its power from the people and from
constitutional law.
Separation of powers is a key principle established in the Constitution. The failed Articles of Confederation had
taught Americans that the central government needed some power, but many still did not want to see one leader (or
group of leaders) completely dominate the country. Instead, they divided responsibilities among three branches of
government: executive, legislative, and judicial.
Checks and balances are related to separation of powers. Checks and balances were set by the Constitution to
grant the three government branches certain powers over each other. For example, the executive president holds
power over the legislative Congress through veto, the ability to prevent a passed bill from becoming a law.
Court cases that verified Constitutional supremacy
Marbury v. Madison (1803) - established that the Supreme Court had the right to strike down any law it perceived
as in violation of the Constitution. It is notable that this right is called "judicial review," and it is one of the checks
and balances given to the judicial branch.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) - ruled that the U.S. Constitution overrides any state laws that directly conflict.
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) - ruled that "separate but equal" was constitutional.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) - ruled that school segregation was unconstitutional.
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education (1969) - instituted school busing to force desegregation.
Civil Liberties and Civil Rights
Civil liberties refers to freedoms that protect the individual from government. They set limits for government so it
cannot abuse its power. Civil disobedience is the refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of a
government, or of an occupying power, without turning to violence.
The Bill of Rights is the first 10 amendments to the Constitution. Some of the amendments that have been
approved since the adoption of the Bill of Rights have expanded the definition of American citizenship.
First Amendment guarantees freedom of religion, speech, and the press. It also guarantees the right to assemble
and to petition.
Second Amendment guarantees the right to keep and bear arms.
Third Amendment spells out conditions for housing soldiers.
Fourth Amendment guarantees protection from unreasonable search and seizure.
Fifth Amendment guarantees the right to due process of the law and protects citizens from double jeopardy and
self-incrimination. Also, private property cannot be taken without compensation.
Sixth Amendment guarantees a speedy trial and other rights of the accused.
Seventh Amendment guarantees trial by jury.
Eighth Amendment prohibits excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment.
Ninth Amendment protects rights not specified in the Bill of Rights.
Tenth Amendment protects powers of states and people.
Amendments since the Bill of Rights
Eleventh Amendment clarifies judicial power.
Twelfth Amendment establishes the procedure for electing a president and vice president.
Thirteenth Amendment abolishes slavery.
Fourteenth Amendment establishes citizenship rights for former slaves.
Fifteenth Amendment establishes that race cannot be used to prevent a citizen from voting.
Sixteenth Amendment authorizes Congress to assess income taxes.
Seventeenth Amendment provides for the direct election of senators by the people of a state.
Eighteenth Amendment prohibits the sale, manufacture, or transportation of liquor.
Nineteenth Amendment extends the right to vote to women.
Twentieth Amendment establishes Jan. 20 for the presidential inauguration.
Twenty-first Amendment repeals the Eighteenth Amendment, ending Prohibition.
Twenty-second Amendment establishes term limits for the president.
Twenty-third Amendment permits the District of Columbia to choose electors for president and vice president.
Twenty-fourth Amendment prohibits poll taxes or any other kind of taxes as a condition for voting.
Twenty-fifth Amendment sets the order of succession to the presidency, and establishes procedures for filling a
vice presidential vacancy and handling presidential disabilities.
Twenty-sixth Amendment lowers the voting age to 18.
Twenty-seventh Amendment provides that any change in the salary of members of Congress may only take effect
after the next general election.
Civic affairs are the ways citizens interact with their society and government. You can participate in civic affairs
through politics, education, and public service.
Political civic participation: includes voting, serving jury duty, and political protesting. People who participate in
political affairs are trying to influence the government.
Educational civic participation: includes public awareness campaigns and organizations that teach useful skills
to individuals. People who participate in educational affairs are trying to help others get educated on various
topics.
Public service civic participation: includes volunteer work and nonprofit organizations. People who participate in
public service affairs are trying to help those less fortunate and increase awareness of various social problems.
Examples of civic participation are joining a nonprofit organization like the Red Cross, creating a public
awareness program for a social problem like child labor, protesting a political topic like segregation, and
volunteering to tutor at a local elementary school.
Elections & Leadership
In general, American voters have the opportunity to participate in more elections than the citizens of most other
democracies. Some Americans may have five or six opportunities a year to vote, with each ballot filled with
different choices for different offices at various levels of government. Because of its federal system, in which both
the national government and the state governments have distinct powers, election day in the United States is
actually the occasion for a series of simultaneous state and local elections, each held under separate administrative
procedures.
The following are the types of elections held in the U.S. and the different regulations and rules involved during the
election process:
Election of the President & Vice President
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According to the United States Constitution, a presidential election is to be held once every fourth year.
To run for President, you must be: a natural-born citizen of the U.S., at least 35 years of age, and a resident
of the U.S. for at least 14 years.
In order to officially represent a political party, a candidate must be nominated by that party.
In order to secure a party’s nomination, a candidate must receive a majority of the votes from the delegates.
This occurs during a primary election.
The candidate for President then must choose a vice-presidential candidate.
If a President is running for re-election, this nomination process must be completed. Even if the President
does not face any opposition from within his own political party, the national convention will still occur.
Some people choose to run for president without being affiliated with a political party. Such independent
candidates need not concern themselves with getting nominated by a party, but must meet other
requirements. Because these candidates do not affiliate with a party, they have to raise much of their own
funding. The U.S. government offers federal grants to candidates who need public funding to pay for their
election costs or meet other election costs.
In this national presidential election, every citizen of legal age (who has taken the steps necessary in his or
her state to meet the voting requirements, such as registering to vote) has an opportunity to vote.
The president is not chosen by direct popular vote. The Electoral College ultimately decides who will win
the general election.
An absolute majority is necessary to prevail in the presidential and the vice presidential elections, that is,
half the total plus one electoral votes are required. With 538 Electors, a candidate must receive at least 270
votes to be elected to the office of President or Vice President.
Should no presidential candidate receive an absolute majority, the House of Representatives determines
who the next president will be. Some elections have been decided by Congress in the past as well as the
Supreme Court.
Election of Senators
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Each state has two senators who are elected to serve six-year terms in the Senate.
Every two years one third of the Senate is up for re-election.
Most states have primary elections to decide which candidates will be on the November general election
ballot.
The 17th Amendment to the Constitution now requires senators to be elected by a direct vote of those he or
she will represent. Election winners are decided by the plurality rule. That is, the person who receives the
highest number of votes wins. This may not necessarily be a majority of the votes. For example, in an
election with three candidates, one candidate may receive only 38% of the vote, another 32%, and the third
30%. Although no candidate has received a majority of more than 50% of the votes, the candidate with
38% wins because he or she has the most votes (the plurality).
Election of Representatives
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The House of Representatives has 435 members and is led by the Speaker of the House.
Members of the House are up for re-election every two years.
The number of persons representing each state depends upon its population as reported in the nation's
decennial census counts.
Each state is divided into congressional districts accordingly. There is a representative for every
congressional district, and every state has at least one congressional district.
Most states have primary elections to decide which candidates will be on the November general election
ballot. Some states' parties hold conventions in conjunction with the primary.
Senate and representative elections differ in who votes for the candidates. All eligible voters within a state
may vote for Senator. A Representative is elected by only those eligible voters residing in the congressional
district that the candidate will represent.
Election winners are decided by the plurality rule.
MAKING LAWS
In the United States, there are law-making processes to make a law. The Constitution covers this process and gives
many opportunities for citizens to participate in the U.S. political process. The Constitution also covers the
freedom of the press, and the press has responsibilities that come with that freedom.
U.S. Law-Making Process
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For a bill to become a law, the Senate and the House of Representatives must pass identical forms of it.
A law is introduced in either house of Congress as a bill.
If both houses cannot agree on an identical form, one usually calls a conference committee.
The bill can be left unapproved in Congress, or go through revisions until it is approved.
Senators have the right to unlimited debate and opportunity to offer amendments and sometimes use this
power to filibuster. Filibuster occurs when a senator uses his unlimited debate to talk or offer meaningless
amendments, taking up long periods of time in hope of preventing legislation from passing.
A filibuster can be ended with cloture, a process that involves 3/5 of the Senate vote.
Both houses meet during a conference committee, and they agree on a final version of the bill.
After the bill has been approved by the House of Representatives and the Senate, it is sent to the President.
Once the Senate approves it, the bill goes to the President.
The President signs the bill, making it a law.
The President can veto a bill if he does not approve and send it back to Congress to be changed, dismissed,
or voted on to override the veto.
After a presidential veto, the Congress has the opportunity to override the veto. If two-thirds of both houses
vote to override the veto, the bill will become law.
Joint committees, made up of members from both the House and the Senate, do not have authority to
consider legislation but instead focus on subjects such as economic matters, printing, and taxation.
Citizens Participation
The Constitution provides many opportunities for citizens to participate in the political process and monitor and
influence government. They include:
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voting—the Constitution gives all native-born or naturalized U.S. citizens over the age of 18, with the
exception of convicted felons, the right to vote. U.S. citizens vote in elections for various positions
including representatives in Congress and the President and Vice-President. Citizens also have the
opportunity to vote directly on a proposed law in a referendum.
political parties—U.S. citizens can participate in the political party they choose. This allows them to
participate in elections and campaigns, as well as to monitor the political system and influence government
officials.
interest groups—groups of people that work for or strongly support a particular cause. This can be a bill or
an industry, or even a non-profit organization. U.S. citizens can participate in interest groups, which
sometimes influence and monitor the government and the political process.
Influences on the Legislative Process
People and organizations do not directly participate in legislation, but they do have the ability to influence
legislators through individual actions and special interest groups. Special interest groups are formed from
people who attempt to influence candidates and politicians without running for office themselves.
A political action committee (PAC) is a group that raises money to aid candidates who share the group's
political views. Political lobbyists are similarly-organized groups who try to influence elected officials to
support a specific cause. Many of these special interest groups are in fact single interest groups, groups formed
only in support or opposition to a single issue.
Other Congressional Powers
The House of Representatives has the power to impeach a federal official. After the House has impeached, or
charged, an official with wrongdoing, the person is tried before the Senate. If two-thirds of the Senate vote to
convict the person, then he or she is removed from office.
VOTING
Citizens must meet a few requirements to participate in the election process. Political organizations, parties, and
other interest groups do what they can to convince people to support their candidates or platforms.
The voting process
Voting laws differ slightly from state to state, but the following are generally the only qualifications you need to
exercise this right and privilege today in the United States:
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You are at least 18 years of age.
You are not a convicted felon (in North Carolina, you can still vote after completing the terms of your
sentence).
You are a U.S. citizen.
You are a legal resident of the state (for North Carolina, it is a 30-day residency requirement).
You are registered to vote.
Referendum voting occurs when citizens vote directly on a proposed law. This is more affiliated with direct
democracy than with representative government.
Partisan describes someone who is partial to a certain political party. Legislation and other political activities can
also be partisan. Bipartisan refers to people or activities that focus on goals not specific to any party, or it can
refer to activities resulting from the combined effort of more than one major party.
Caucuses and Political Action Committees (PAC) both play important roles in the election process. Both are
formed from groups of people who share the same interests or geographic area. Caucuses decide which candidates
a group will support based on that group's goals. PACs, in contrast, are not formally related to any party; they
instead raise money to influence candidates toward their position.
How candidates reach the people
Candidates make use of the mass media to reach their potential voters. Through the media, candidates are able to
advertise themselves. They can also use public debate to make known and defend their policies.
Voter polls are surveys in which people are asked their opinions on candidates or issues. Political parties and
candidates use this information to determine where the public stands, and they focus their campaigns accordingly.
For example, the beliefs and principles listed in party platforms often answer issues that the party feels people
care most about.
Propaganda techniques are also used to attract voters to a candidate or party. Here are some of the most common
techniques:
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Glittering generalities—using virtue words that appeal to voters' emotions
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Bandwagon—convincing people to support someone or something because everyone else already is
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Card stacking—selectively presenting only the positive qualities of something, exaggerating them, and
omitting any downsides or opposing arguments
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Name calling—using negative words to describe opposing candidates or ideas, in order to stir emotions of
dislike
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"Just Plain Folks"—identifying oneself with the common people to convince voters of sincerity and
values
Sometimes political candidates or organization representatives go door-to-door to contact voters—a technique
called canvassing. Though not strictly a "propaganda technique" in the sense of the others, canvassing is
effective because voters often respond favorably to candidates who take the time to meet them face-to-face.
Foreign Policy
A nation’s foreign policy is a set of goals that outlines how that country will interact officially with other countries
of the world. Foreign policies usually are designed to help protect a country’s national interests, national security,
ideological goals, and prosperity. Creating foreign policy is the job of the head of government or head of state and
the foreign minister (or equivalent). In the United States, the head of state (the president) also functions as the head
of government, and the secretary of state is the foreign minister. Some aspects of foreign policy, such as the
approval of treaties, are Congress’ responsibility.
U.S. foreign policy
Along with Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union, foreign policy was influenced by oil supplies in the
Middle East in the latter half of the 20th century. Support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War in 1973 led
Arab oil-producing nations to stop selling oil to the United States, its allies in Europe, and Japan. The Arab oil
embargo led to a substantial increase in the price of gasoline in the United States, but, over the long term, it
also led to more exploration and measures to conserve energy.
Human rights was the focal point of American foreign policy during Jimmy Carter’s presidency (1977-1981).
This was a departure from the long-held U.S. foreign policy toward the Soviet Union of trying to contain the
spread of communism to other countries. In previous administrations, human rights abuses were often
overlooked if they were committed by governments that were allied with the United States. But America
secretly began to send aid to anti-Soviet Islamist factions in Afghanistan in 1979, and the Carter
administration’s foreign policy focused almost entirely on the hostage crisis in Iran in the final year of Carter’s
presidency. The Carter administration achieved its greatest foreign policy accomplishment by persuading
Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar el-Sadat to participate in peace talks at
Camp David, Md., in 1978 and sign the Camp David Accords in 1979.
”Peace through strength” was the foreign policy strategy of the Reagan administration (1981-1989). As part
of what came to be known as the “Reagan Doctrine,” which was designed to oppose the global influence of the
Soviet Union, the United States provided financial and support for equipment and troops for anti-communist
forces in central Europe and took an increasingly hard-line position against communist governments in
countries like Afghanistan, Angola, Cambodia, and Nicaragua. Reagan’s personal support for the Contra rebels
in Nicaragua led some members of the national security staff to dodge congressional restrictions on military
aid, leading to the Iran-Contra affair in the final years of Reagan’s administration.
Activity in the Persian Gulf fueled foreign policy in George H.W. Bush’s presidency (1989-1993), when Iraq
invaded Kuwait in 1990 and Bush assembled a United Nations coalition force to remove Saddam Hussein’s
Iraqi troops from the small monarchy. The war was over in a matter of weeks, but questions lingered, including
the decision not to overthrow Hussein’s government in Iraq. Bush said that he did not give the order to do that
because it had not been an objective before the war. Bush also was president when the Soviet Union collapsed,
an event that many believed was brought about by the foreign policy of his predecessor. Near the end of Bush's
presidency, in 1992, the United States participated in a humanitarian effort, sponsored by the United Nations,
to provide food for civil war-torn Somalia.
Bill Clinton was the first president elected after the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, but
he found his administration (1993-2001) involved in a variety of international conflicts. Based on Clinton’s
belief that the United States had an interest in human rights and promoting political and economic stability,
American troops were sent to Somalia, Rwanda, Kosovo, Haiti, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Clinton’s foreign
policy also was influenced by the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center. The bombing did not result in the
destruction of the World Trade Center, but the investigation that followed uncovered an Iraqi plot to
assassinate George H.W. Bush while he was president, and Clinton responded with missile strikes against Iraq.
The foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration (2001–2009) has been defined by his response to the
terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001. Initially, Bush ordered strikes to punish Afghanistan, which intelligence
reports indicated had been a safe haven for Osama bin Laden and the terrorist group behind the attacks. In
2003, as part of a broader “War on Terror,” the Bush administration launched an invasion of Iraq based on
reports of the existence of weapons of mass destruction.