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Social Psychology & INFOSEC NEW ENGLAND INFORMATION SECURITY GROUP 2004-05-20 M. E. Kabay, PhD, CISSP Assoc. Prof. Information Assurance Program Director, Master of Science in Information Assurance Norwich University 1 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Topics 2 Attribution Theory Social Cognition: Forming Judgments Beliefs and Attitudes Prejudice Locus of Control Persuasion and Attitude Change Conformity, Compliance and Obedience Pro-Social (Helpful) Behavior Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Attribution Theory Attribution Theory How people explain their own and others' behavior Weiner's classification: Stable Dispositions; traits; level of ability or intelligence Internal External 3 Degree of task difficulty; env helps/hindrance Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Unstable Effort; mood; physical state Good/bad luck; opportunity; transient situations Attribution Theory (cont’d) How we explain behavior 4 Fundamental Attribution Error – Star Trek's Leonard Nimoy is really like the character he portrays (Mr Spock) Actor-Observer Effect – What I do is a reasonable response to the situation but what you do is in your nature Salience – What stands out is perceived as most important even if it isn't Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Attribution Theory (cont’d) 5 Self-Serving Bias – If I succeed it's because of how good I am, but if I lose it's not my fault Self-Handicapping – If I expect to fail I'll make sure there's a good excuse Depressed People – If I lose it's because of how bad I am, but if I succeed it's not to my credit Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Attribution Theory: Implications 6 Leader and others: remember not to pigeonhole someone – E.g., “He’s always _______” Reverse situation – think about explanations for perplexing or objectionable behavior – “If I were behaving that way, it would be because __________” Challenge unthinking reliance on salience – question assumptions about causality – “Why should the fact that he limps make a difference to _________?” Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Social Cognition: Forming Judgements 7 Schemas influence perception Decision-making usually includes only a small subset of available information Language influences perception Reasoning is only a small part of forming judgments or opinions Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Schemas Organized knowledge about the world Influence perceptions — Allport’s experiments with drawings of people on tramway Affect memory — witnesses unreliable More subtle and complex for in-groups than for out-groups – give outgroup no credit May lead to self-fulfilling prophecies; e.g., math teachers vs girls – Reward compliance with schema (boys) – Punish deviation (girls) Suggestion: question expectations, assumptions 8 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Schemas (cont’d) 9 Schema from one sphere may interfere with successful implementation of new policies Present counterintuitive information in advance – Provide enough time for assimilation – Distribute background papers – Use case studies to counter inappropriate schemata Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Inadequate Sampling Judgments are often based on inadequate samples Early, negative, information weighted heavily The availability heuristic can lead to errors in judgment – What’s easy to remember weighs too heavily in decision – Anecdotal evidence inappropriately strong 10 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Inadequate Sampling (cont’d) 11 Provide decision makers with powerful arguments first Ensure there’s lots of striking, memorable evidence in presentation Explicitly challenge incorrect intuition, preconceptions, conclusions Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Beliefs and Attitudes 12 Belief: cognitive information without affect – “The operators are responsible for tape mounts.” Attitude: evaluation or emotional response – “The */$&/! Operators are supposed to be responsible for tape mounts!” Cognitive dissonance: incompatible beliefs, attitudes or behavior – “I am an honest person – but I have taken home three dozen Zip disks this month.” Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Beliefs and Attitudes 13 Before attempting to change beliefs and attitudes, study what they are – Interviews – Focus groups – Surveys Use language carefully – Positive terms for desired end-point Encouragement is effective – Even minor praise, smile can shape beliefs and attitudes Allow time for change – weeks at least Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Beliefs and Attitudes (cont’d) Suggestions for security group: Explore current beliefs and attitudes towards security – Identify areas of conflict, negative affect – Correct erroneous beliefs fast – Explore why some policies are successful Provide consistent pro-security messages to avoid dissonance – e.g., managers should not ignore polices Rewards more effective than punishment – encouraging positive attitudes & behavior 14 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Prejudice 15 Stereotypes – simple models of others; – e.g., racial profiling, assumptions about security officers Roots of prejudice are many – historical, social, familial, psychological, personal Authoritarian personality includes prejudice Minimal-group research – easy to generate intergroup hostility and prejudice simply by grouping Group competition exacerbates prejudice – Creating common goals and projects for hostile groups mitigates prejudice Favorable depictions improve inter-group relations Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Locus of Control 16 People work better when they feel in control – Able to affect outcomes – Considered by decision-makers – Listened-to Experimental evidence – Teams working in noisy environment – Patients in convalescence homes Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Locus of Control Locus of Control Group 1 17 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Locus of Control Locus of Control Group 2 STOP 18 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Locus of Control 19 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Persuasion and Attitude Change: Effective Communication What influences pace of change: Audience/Listener variables Channel variables Communicator/Presenter variables Message variables 20 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Effective Communication: Listener Variables 21 Knowledge base Objectives Intelligence Alertness Motivation Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Knowledge Base 22 Define prerequisite knowledge, skills Ask each participant for brief biography Explore related areas of knowledge Identify strengths and weaknesses Incorporate interests into examples, discussions Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Intelligence 23 Less important than frequently assumed Encourage questions, discussion Praise interventions, ideas, contributions For courses – Effective study methods can compensate – Offer assistance outside class Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Alertness 24 Sleep deprivation harmful to learning Use channel variables to enhance alertness Provide frequent breaks Respond immediately to inattention Use humor and the unexpected Discourage heavy lunches Forbid alcohol during task-force meetings, workshops and training Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Motivation 25 “What would you like to be able to do after this course that you can’t do now?” Beware forced participation: work to convince of meeting or courses utility For courses: address benefits of mastery – Share experiences in real world – Bring in enthusiastic “graduate” • If possible, one who was negative at start • Have brief description of positive results, value Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Channel Variables 26 Time available Working conditions Visibility, audibility, clarity High interactivity Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Time Available 27 Allow for at least ~2-3 minutes/slide on average – Check your timings if you use more slides – Be sure that you can in fact present all the slides At most ~1 hr between breaks – Use longer breaks (e.g., 20-30 minutes) to foster creativity – Informal discussions often useful At most ~7 hr/day If necessary, plan 2 or more days or sessions for better assimilation and application of complex issues Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Working Conditions 28 Keep room relatively cool Lights bright if possible Comfortable chairs Desks or tables with enough room for computers and papers Printed materials with room for notes Multimedia: reference articles, videos If possible and appropriate, network with hub & LAN connectors – High-speed access to Net – NetMeeting software Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Visibility, Audibility, Clarity 29 Stand, move, sit Speak clearly at all times – Keep microphone away from direct line of breath (avoids noise) Vary speed – Slower than conversation – Pauses effective for emphasis Over-inflect for emphasis – Different from conversational mode – Increase frequency range and dynamic range Face the audience, not the slide / poster Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. High Interactivity 30 Ask questions frequently Challenge individuals Turn discussion to relevant personal experiences Use digressions constructively to reinforce message Use examples from participants’ experiences When teaching, remember individual students’ interests and point out relevance of specific material to them Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Effective Communication: Presenter Variables 31 Psychology and motivation Empathy and imagination Patience Subject knowledge Background knowledge Ethical standards Externals Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Psychology and Motivation 32 Commitment to group / participant / student achievement Beware feelings of power and superiority Encourage questions, challenges – Thank people for raising questions; smile – Set example: “I don’t know that; can anyone help on that question?. . . . I’ll do some research for the next meeting / class.” – Deal with extensive discussions at break to avoid disrupting flow of meeting Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Psychology and Motivation (cont’d) 33 Admit mistakes immediately and clearly – “On that third point, I was wrong. Thank you to Scott for pointing out that. . . .” Unforgivable to humiliate people – Grounds for dismissal Every session is a chance for leader / teacher to learn – Write down ideas for improvement Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Empathy and Imagination 34 Remember what it was like being a beginner – Define jargon terms – Define acronyms on first use Identify basic knowledge and skills needed for assimilation of later concepts, material In courses, ensure that basics are thoroughly mastered – If necessary, take disproportionately longer at start of meeting / course Encourage meetings after meeting / class – Make schedule of availability known – Stick to schedule, especially for students Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Patience 35 Find alternative ways of explaining ideas / skills – Analogies – Examples – War stories When question out of place, defer answer – Later in lecture if suitable – At break or after class Respect students for wanting to understand Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Subject Knowledge 36 Difficult or impossible to provide technical leadership or to teach without mastering subject Create your own presentation materials – Or adapt existing materials Use all available resources to supplement your knowledge and understanding – Textbooks – Articles Essayons! – Colleagues Motto of Norwich University – Online databases “I don’t know; let’s try to find out!” Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Background Knowledge 37 Read widely in related areas Bring in analogies from other areas of experience Use personal life-experiences when suitable Talk about feelings as well as ideas Express values openly Use divergence of judgment or opinion as opportunity for expanding everyone’s knowledge Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Ethical Standards 38 Work for the participants’ and the organization’s benefit Review and revise course materials as appropriate before reusing them Provide value for time invested Take participants’ other commitments into account — stay on schedule – Start when you say you’ll start – Stop when you say you’ll stop If teaching a course, make it possible to achieve maximum grades Teachers: beware of emotional / sexual entanglements with students — violation of professional ethical standards Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Effective Communication: Message Variables 39 Context Behavioral objectives Organization Content Review questions Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Context 40 Provide overview of coming materials – If appropriate, specify preliminary readings – Provide notes for participants / students – Use overview slides throughout presentation Explain why information matters to participants or students Focus on practical skills and examples Courses: consider open-book exams, cooperative learning Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Behavioral Objectives 41 Avoid internally defined objectives such as “knowing”, “becoming familiar with” etc. What will the team or the class be able to DO after the session / course that they can’t do yet? – Analyze, apply, attack, choose, compare, contrast, decide, defend, define, discuss, design, demonstrate, establish, explain, improve, optimize, prepare, repair, solve, teach, . . . . – Within certain time limits, with certain tools available, accomplish specific actions. . . . Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Organization 42 Design presentation / course top-down – Sketch out areas of concern, skills – Fill in details Fundamental questions – What’s this all about? (context) – So why should I care about it? (motivation) – So what’s the scoop? (content) Provide signposts explaining upcoming sections Start each section with restatement of why it matters Emphasize mastery of basic knowledge Point to more advanced topics Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Organization (cont’d) 43 Memory works through association – Engrams — patterns of neuronal firings in chains that activate experience, concepts – Want to provide lots of hooks for assimilation / memory Present practical examples before stating theory – Need concrete example to establish framework for associations Invite comment, experiences from participants before presenting theory – Opportunity to strengthen integration of new information into web of associations Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Evaluating Effectiveness of Communication When leading a meeting or an informal course or workshop, gauge effectiveness through – Watching body language throughout session – Informal discussion – 1:1 conversation Interviews, focus groups, surveys Declining accuracy 44 For formal courses, can use essays, quizzes, examinations, projects – Include active knowledge as well as passive – If open-book, preferable to restrict time; e.g., 2 minutes per question Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Conformity, Compliance and Obedience 45 Shift normative values towards goal – Express expectation of cooperation – “We” Group solidarity increases conformity – Group exercises, games, teamwork – If using contests, mix up the teams Outliers are especially important – Both enthusiasts and resisters Norm of reciprocity – Give a little, get a little Foot in the door – Get a little, get more Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Pro-Social (Helpful) Behavior Acting helpfully requires 4 steps: Notice problem – Need awareness Recognize as emergency – Need training Take responsibility for action – Need climate for responsible action – No worry about looking foolish Decide on action – Sound training, good policies 46 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Pro-Sociality (cont’d) 47 Bystander Effect – Larger groups have slower reaction time – Diffusion of responsibility – Uncertainty about social climate Counter bystander effect using rewards for responsible behavior – E.g., reporting security violations – Challenging unbadged strangers Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. Pro-Sociality (cont’d) 48 Cost-benefit analysis – Make prosociality low cost / high gain – Provide hotline for security violations – Allow anonymity in reports Make failing to support policy expensive – Personnel policies: clear sanctions – Performance review – Possible dismissal Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved. DISCUSSION M. E. Kabay, PhD, CISSP mailto:[email protected] http://www2.norwich.edu/mkabay 49 Copyright © 2004 M. E. Kabay. All rights reserved.