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Timeline
Date
1530 May
December
Act or Event
William Tyndale’s Vernacular
Bible Burnt
Entire Clergy accused of
Praemunire
Significance
Attack on heresy against established Catholicism in England
Attack on Papal power as exercised through the Catholic courts,
Praemunire: to appeal to a power outside of England on a matter
under the jurisdiction of the Crown
1531 Feb
Clergy pardoned of Praemunire
Henry is paid £119,000 in return to this – holding the Church to
charge
ransom using political power, an example of need for money
1532
First Act of Annates
Restricted the payment of Annates (taxes) to Rome and allowed
bishops to be consecrated by English power. Thus, this undermined
the authority of the Pope in the governance of the church in England
1533
Act in Restraint of Appeals to
Henry announces intention to unite crown with ‘the lands which the
Rome
clergy of his dominions held thereof’, clear goal to take over Church
lands to increase his revenue
1534
Act of Succession
Made Henry and Catherine’s marriage invalid, declared Mary
illegitimate and legitimised any children of Anne’s
The whole nation had to swear an oath agreeing
1535
Cromwell made Vice-Regent in
Cromwell could now act on the King’s behalf in all matters with
Spirituals
regard to the Church
1535/6
Valor Ecclesiasticus
Cromwell’s aims become evident. Valor had 2 purposes – to gauge
the Church’s wealth and to cast monasteries in the worst light
possible. Much of the ‘evidence’ either fabricated or grossly
exaggerated
1536
Second Act of Succession
Both Mary and Elizabeth declared illegitimate to removed from
succession, giving him choice as to who should follow him should be
have no more children
1536
Act of Dissolution of the
Presented as reform not destruction, made four key provisions: all
Monasteries
houses worth less than £200 p.a. were dissolved, heads of houses
given pension and monks to become secular priests, larger houses
praised (preamble argued act was to strengthen larger houses), and
gave Henry power to exclude any house
1536
Court of Augmentations
Cromwell sets up Court of Augmentations to deal with influx of good
and property – presented as a reform measure to focus on improving
monastic standards
Whether Henry or Cromwell had in mind complete dissolution at this stage is open to question. The conservatism of the
1536 Act suggests not. Richard Hoyle argues that Henry recognised any further dissolution would be unacceptable to the
populous – cites Pilgrimage of Grace as evidence.
At this time, Henry even re-founded a handful of monasteries, e.g. in Bisham and Stixwould.
1537
Voluntary Surrenders
Number of ‘voluntary surrenders’ of larger houses, though in fact
forced by royal commissioners. Pivotal moment – dissolution of
Priory of Lewes in Sussex in December, writing on the wall, all
houses now seemed under attack.
1538
Mass dissolution
Cromwell embarks on dissolution of remaining large monasteries –
202 ‘surrendered’ in 16 months
1539
Second Act of Dissolution of the
Legitimised the aforementioned ‘voluntary surrenders’ and gave
Monasteries
Cromwell parliamentary sanction. Scarisbrick: the act ‘ratified a fait
accompli’
1539
Act of Six Articles
Steers Church in England toward Catholicism, see below
1539
Act of Proclamations
King’s proclamations were to carry came weight as acts of parliament
1540
Surrender of Waltham Abbey
Final nail in the coffin of monasticism in England in March 1540
All major properties had now been transferred to Crown. 563 houses dissolved, 8000 monks pensioned, 2000 nuns left with
nothing, Crown income doubled from £120,000 p.a. to £250,000 p.a., with the resale value of monastic lands standing at
£1.3million
1543
Third Act of Succession
Reinstated the legitimacy of Mary and Elizabeth, placing them after
Edward in the order of succession
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Henry VIII – Background
 *1492, coronation at 18
o Arthur was the real heir to the throne, but died and Henry presented himself as the next best alternative
o As the 2nd Tudor monarch, he marked the end of war of Roses and a new period of stability. Consolidated power.
Achieved a degree of popularity by executing Henry VII’s unpopular right hand men, Epson and Dudley
 Six wives, wanted a son and heir
o Catherine of Aragon > Mary I, Anne Boleyn > Elizabeth, Jane Seymour > Edward VI, Anne of Cleves,
Catherine Howard, Catherine Parr
 Made himself head of church to allow divorce (reformation)
o Allowed divorce of Catherine of Aragon for Anne Boleyn
o Also allowed Henry to seize Church lands and property after he had exhausted the resources built up by Henry VII
 Idolised Henry V (who had taken most of France) as a warrior king, hated the French and wanted war
 3 Key advisors: Wolsey (Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, Archbishop of York, King’s Chief Advisor),
Cromwell, and Cranmer (Protestants and key supporters of the reformation)
Key People
Thomas Wolsey
 Born 1472 or 1473, gained patronage of Marquis of Dorset at Oxford and became Henry’s chaplain
 Showed his qualities in the First French War of 1513
 Importance shown by the number of offices he accumulated (became Archbishop of York and Bishop of Tournai
(conquered in 1513 offensive) and Lincoln), became Cardinal and Lord Chancellor in 1515. Embodied vice of
pluralism, taking positions and the wealth they brought – e.g. didn’t visit his diocese of York until his fall from
power in 1528
 Appointed at Papal Legate in 1818 – effectively giving him complete control over the Church in England and
primacy over the Archbishop of Canterbury
 Recent Historiography: Scarisbrick – Wolsey’s central aim was to be peacemaker of Europe, Peter Gwyn (who?!)
– Henry was always master and Wolsey was his loyal servant, whose aim was to promote and honour the King
 Downfall after failure to secure annulment from Catherine of Aragon around 1529, replaced as chancellor by
Thomas More, died 1530
Thomas Cromwell
 For a full biography, see http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/thomas_cromwell.htm
Thomas More
 Became privy councillor in 1517, made Treasurer of Exchequer in 1521 after diplomatic mission to Charles V
with Wolsey
 Left office in 1530 after refusing to sign letter in support of the reformation, beheaded in 1535 after refusing to
swear 1534 Act of Succession
The role of the state: the King’s Great Matter and the break from Rome, 1529-35
Catherine of Aragon
 Henry and Catherine married in 1509 and Catherine had previously been married to Henry’s older brother Arthur,
Prince of Wales, who had died in 1502 after less than 6 months of marriage. Marriage required Papal dispensation
as marriage of man and brother’s widow forbidden by Canon Law > granted on 11th June 1509
 Henry had illegitimate son, Duke of Richmond, born to mistress Bessie Blount in 1519
 Catherine had two successful pregnancies: Henry born 1511 but died 7 weeks later, and Mary born 1516
 Issue of succession made complicated by illegitimate male heir. Idea of female heiress unthinkable, her hand in
marriage commodity > already given away in 1518 to infant dauphin of France, agreed three times by 1524
 Catherine’s last pregnancy in 1518, Henry and Catherine stopped sleeping together in 1524 > no hope of
conception
 David Loades: Major issue in divorce was to protect succession
 Therefore, three options: legitimise Duke of Richmond (but would be very unpopular with nobility and might
prompt action from someone with legitimate claim), marry off Mary and hope for male heir from her (though
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rumours circulating as of 1527 about her legitimacy so this was not a viable option), so had to find a new wife to
bear an heir
Anne’s Emergence - Historiography
 Time is important as determines motives behind break with Rome. Was it desire for a male heir, lust, religion, or
a combination?
 Eric Ives, Anne Boleyn, ‘The probabilities are... in favour of a relationship that becomes clear only after the
decision to divorce... in the first place it is clear that Wolsey was not aware of how committed Henry was [to
Anne] until autumn 1527. No hint of Anne’s involvement with Henry was discovered before that date – unlikely
if the affair was already two years old’
o Therefore a pragmatic relationship based on need for heir
 Scarisbrick, Henry VIII, ‘What had probably begun as a light alliance had grown into something deeper and more
dangerous. Anne refused to become his mistress ... [Anne] would give herself entirely to him only if he gave
himself entirely to her’
o Therefore a deep-seated lust that gained momentum up until divorce was the only remaining option
 MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe’s House Divided, ‘Henry became convinced that his lack of a male heir
proved that previous Pope Julius II should never have given him the dispensation to marry... This undoubtedly
genuine conviction coincided with his discovery of Anne Boleyn’
 E. Ives, Anne Boleyn, ‘Henry had no option as a devout Christian but to obey... the vital historical point is that
Henry believed’
o Therefore motivated by moral and religious convictions in light of Leviticus
Beginnings of Divorce
 Earliest evidence of decision to divorce: May 1527, Spanish ambassador makes report suggesting Henry is
consulting with leading lawyers and bishops to declare his marriage void as she had been married to his brother
and that Julius II’s 1509 decision to allow it had been wrong
 Henry consulted Catherine sometime in 1527, though by this time she knew about Anne Boleyn so was unwilling
to believe in his supposed troubled consciousness
 Elton thesis: ‘The basic Elton orthodoxy is that it was brought about mainly due to Thomas Cromwell, for
whom it was a vital stage in the development of the sovereign nation state which he aspired to create’
o HOWEVER, Cromwell ‘not the initiator’ and considerable influence of Cranmer to be considered
 Henry seems to have believed that his marriage was sinful in the eyes of God as no child
o See: Leviticus 20:21 – ‘If a man takes his brother’s wife... they shall be childless’
 Divorce/Annulment not normally a problem but in this case:
o Pope had given specific dispensation to marry; to allow for divorce on these grounds would have been to
deny papal infallibility
o Catherine objected and the pope was a virtual prisoner of her nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at
the time
o There was contention over the biblical basis – had the marriage of Arthur and Catherine been
consummated?
o Henry was not childless, he had a daughter (though this was as good as childless and there were questions
about Mary’s legitimacy)
Measures taken to prepare for the divorce 1529-32
Legatine Court
 Henry expected case to be settled in England – Legatine Court in Blackfriars began in March 1529, under
auspices of Cardinal Thomas Campeggio on behalf of the Clement VII
 Wolsey sought to put pressure on Campeggio, Henry expectant of success due to Wolsey’s influence as Cardinal
but his power less than that of Charles V who help pope in Rome
o Henry’s financial and diplomatic power is limited
 Catherine pleas to Campeggio that marriage was never consummated with considerable success
 Lack of decision, Clement VII playing for time, not wanting to offend either Henry or Charles V
 Court adjourned on 31st July 1529 until October; it never met again; Wolsey replaced as Chancellor by Thomas
More for his failure
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Putting the Clergy under pressure
 |||| 15 members of upper clergy inc. supporters of Catherine charged with
Praemunire, only dropped in January 1531 after |||| Convocation of
Canterbury agreed to pay £100,000
 |||| Henry demanded to be recognised as ‘sole protector and also Supreme
Head of the English Church’; rejected by Convocation in favour of watereddown title ‘singular protector’
Praemunire: to appeal to a
power outside of England to
resolve a problem under the
jurisdiction of the crown
The Reformation Parliament
 Writs issued to call a parliament by November 1529 shortly after failure of the papal court
 Henry’s most pressing concern was annulment. Three methods to consider:
o |||| Weakening will of Church to resist by taking action against leading Churchmen on grounds of
praemunire
o |||| forcing the Church to grant the crown a large sum of money
o |||| exerting political pressure
o taking full and legal control of the Church in England
 By making use of the anticlericalism esp. from London lawyer and MP Edward Hall, Henry pursued policy
combining all three elements
 Reformation Parliament timeline:
Date
1532
Act
Supplication of the
Ordinaries
January 1533
-
1533
Act in Restraint of Appeals
1533
1534
Act of Supremacy
Act in Restraint of Annates
1534
Act of Succession
1534
Act for Submission of the
Clergy
Treason Act
1535
1536
Act Extinguishing the
Authority of the Bishop of
Rome
Significance
MPs petitioned Henry to take action against abuses of power (though it’s suspected
Cromwell was behind this); Henry used this to threaten the Convocation with
demands to remove the Church’s legal independence > all future canon laws
require consent of King and existing Canon law scrutinised by committee
Anne Boleyn is pregnant, Henry and Anne marry is a secret ceremony near the end
of January. Henry is now in urgent need of a solution.
Put a stop to all appeals in testamentary (wills), matrimony and tithes going to
Rome. These cases would now be heard in ecclesiastical courts in England. This
meant Cromwell was able to decide the King’s case rather than the Pope –
importance of this factor emphasized by its specific inclusion in earlier drafts
Confirmation of Henry as Head of the Catholic Church in England and Wales.
This Act disallowed the payments of 'First Fruits and Tenths' from going to Rome.
They would go to the crown instead. It also laid down the procedure for the
election of bishops and abbots. A later Act abolished 'Peter's Pence'.
This put the heirs of Henry and Anne above all others. To question this became a
treasonable offence. Every adult in the land had to swear an oath agreeing to this.
This took away the right for the Convocation to assemble without a royal licence.
This was a formidable piece of legislation which made it an offence to desire in
any way harm to the king, the queen or the heir apparent. Gave Henry something
very close to absolute power. Made denying royal supremacy even in words
treasonable.
Just in case anything had been missed, this made sure that any loopholes were dealt
with. From this point onwards, Henry could be sure that complete control of the
church was his.
Opposition to Royal Supremacy




Weakness of opposition is surprising: papacy was not unpopular (hostility was a result not cause of the
reformation), Catherine was popular and there were ‘mutterings’ about Anne
Elizabeth Barton, ‘Holy Maid of Kent’: claimed to have had vision that in Henry acted against Catherine he
would cease to be King in 6 months; arrested, made to confess (under torture) and used to entrap others who’d
communicated with her
John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester: well respected scholar across Europe, and steadfast in his belief in Papal
authority and the given right of the Pope, and that any denial of this was sinful, refused to sign Oath of
Succession in April 1534, his execution in June 1535 was linked to the Pope’s decision to make him a cardinal
Sir Thomas More, Lord Chancellor 1529-32: Catholic humanist, looked for Catholic renewal rather than
Protestant reformation, and made a principled stance against the Henrician dogma of royal supremacy; became
increasingly uncomfortable with divorce proceedings to resigned 1532; executed in 1535 after being found guilty
of treason
o ‘No more might this realm of England refuse obedience to the Sea of Rome’
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
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Carthusian and Observant Franciscan monks (see The Dissolution of the Monasteries: Background):
principled and determined stance against royal supremacy, many suppressed, executed or imprisoned
Merchant Classes: feared that moving toward Protestantism would result in trade barriers with Vaticancontrolled countries such as the Netherlands, where Antwerp was a major centre for the cloth trade
Reasons for weakness of opposition:
o Pace: While English bishops were impressive in morals and learning, the slow process of the supremacy
meant it was hard to find the right time to strike; slow pace also meant there was time to install vetted
bishops
 Revisionist perspective: individuals responded to individual events without a common motive
and without seeing the full picture – diversity prevented a major crisis developing
o Papal weakness: Pope Clement trying to appease Henry without giving him the divorce, thus little papal
support
o Intimidation: over 500 executions for treason between 1534 and 1540, inc. More, Fisher and 3 Carthusian
priors under Treason Act
o Intelligence: Cromwell’s network of informers, coupled with his intelligence, enough to keep people
quiet
The Dissolution of the Monasteries
Background
 Over 800 monasteries in pre-reformation England, wielding social and economic power over communities
Order
Detail
Benedictines
Largest and wealthiest order, noted for learning and committed to obedience, chastity, poverty and
manual labour
Cistercians
Breakaway from the Benedictines, aimed for a simpler, more austere way of life, famous for sheep
farming esp. in Wales and the North
Carthusians
Very conservative > source of opposition to Henry, lived in isolated cells and silence, the strictest of all
orders
Carmelites
White Friars
Dominicans
Black Friars
Franciscans
Grey Friars
Augustinians
Largely popular due to propensity to preach in community and to give alms and hospitality
Motives for Dissolution
 ‘It should be recognised that the dissolution of the monasteries was not a necessary consequence of the split from
Rome’, John Lotherington
 The dissolution was not unprecedented, in 1818 and 1525, Wolsey had secured permission to close a number of
institutions to pay for his college at Oxford and an grammar school in his hometown, Ipswich
Financial
 Ambassador Chapuys claimed to have heard Cromwell promise to make Henry ‘the richest king in Christendom’
 Even in early 1530s, the Church seen as a potential revenue stream, a plan was drawn up to take all Church tithes
and income in exchange for Bishop’s salaries and grants for monasteries. It was suggested that all Church lands
be confiscated by Cromwell in 1534
 According to the Valor Ecclesiasticus (1535) Monasteries owned ¼ of all England’s cultivated land and annual
income was estimated at £136,000, a tempting amount of money for Henry
 Ordinary Expenditure: Crown was relatively poor by 1530s. Henry VII’s legacy had been consumed by wars with
the French, and inflation bean to affect the generation of income from existing Crown lands
 Extraordinary expenditure:
o Short term: Papacy was keen to encourage Charles V and Francis I into a crusade against Henry as a
result of the break with Rome. Though this was unlikely as the Habsburgs and Valois were locked in
dispute over the Italian States, Henry arguable overestimated the danger of attack and had built a series of
defences along the south coast.
o ‘The Break with Rome had seen relations with France break down - the French pension had been stopped
and there was a need to build up a war chest to prepare for an anticipated Habsburg-Valois alliance’
o Long term: Henry’s ambition was still an expensive war with the French.
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Religious
 Theological: dissolution can be seen as an attack on Catholic doctrine of salvation through ‘good works’;
reformers inc. Cromwell did not believe in Purgatory and thus not ‘good works’, as well as disagreeing on the
practise of saying masses for the dead; general move toward Protestantism. Evidence:
o In 1538, the Abbess of Godstow attempted to save her abbey by admitting ‘there is neither Pope nor
Purgatory... nor praying to dead saints used or regarded amongst us’
o Injunction drawn up in 1536 by Cromwell in Henry’s name to ban the worship of images, relics,
miracles, pilgrimage and prayer to saints; only God could grant forgiveness
o Shrine to Thomas à Becket in Canterbury destroyed in 1538 although great centre of pilgrimage; shrine
of Our Lady in Doncaster and Statue of Mary in London also removed
o ‘For some people there was a more fundamental objection to monasticism as simply being a misguided
spiritual life... a waste of human and financial resources
Moral
 Dissolution as an attack on the supposedly poor standards maintained by Monks and Nuns. Evidence:
 1536 Dissolution Act gives reason for dissolution of smaller monasteries as ‘manifest sin, vicious, carnal and
abominable living’
 Geoffrey Elton argues that lay people had little respect for monks and nuns because of their perceived behaviour
 BUT: revisionist historians have criticized this argument: visitations were flying visits arguably; with the aim of
uncovering abuse, there is evidence of strict discipline (the Carthusians had their own prison for those who broke
their monastic vows at Mount Grace Priory)
 It seems more likely that this argument was used to give Henry and Cromwell’s actions a veneer of acceptability
Political
 The monasteries traditionally contained the clerics most loyal to the Pope (e.g. the Carthusians in London).
Dissolution was the only way to rule out a monastic rebellion and stamp out Papal influence in England (see: Act
in Restraint of Appeals)
Personal
 Ensuring the support of the nobility and asserting monarchic authority were
paramount. Henry needed support in case of a royal minority*, and distributing
land among the gentry following the dissolution would help ensure this
*Royal minority: when the
heir to thrown in less than 18
(i.e. the age to assume full
powers of government)
Process of Dissolution - Timeline
Date
1533
Act or Event
Act in Restraint of Appeals to Rome
Significance
Henry announces intention to unite crown with ‘the lands which the clergy of his
dominions held thereof’, clear goal to take over Church lands to increase his
revenue
1535
Cromwell made Vice-Regent in
Cromwell could now act on the King’s behalf in all matters with regard to the
Spirituals
Church
1535/6
Valor Ecclesiasticus
Cromwell’s aims become evident. Valor had 2 purposes – to gauge the Church’s
wealth and to cast monasteries in the worst light possible. Much of the ‘evidence’
either fabricated or grossly exaggerated
1536
Act of Dissolution of the Monasteries
Presented as reform not destruction, made four key provisions: all houses worth
less than £200 p.a. were dissolved, heads of houses given pension and monks to
become secular priests, larger houses praised (preamble argued act was to
strengthen larger houses), and gave Henry power to exclude any house
1536
Court of Augmentations
Cromwell sets up Court of Augmentations to deal with influx of good and
property – presented as a reform measure to focus on improving monastic
standards
Whether Henry or Cromwell had in mind complete dissolution at this stage is open to question. The conservatism of the 1536 Act
suggests not. Richard Hoyle argues that Henry recognised any further dissolution would be unacceptable to the populous – cites
Pilgrimage of Grace as evidence.
At this time, Henry even re-founded a handful of monasteries, e.g. in Bisham and Stixwould.
1537
Voluntary Surrenders
Number of ‘voluntary surrenders’ of larger houses, though in fact forced by royal
commissioners. Pivotal moment – dissolution of Priory of Lewes in Sussex in
December, writing on the wall, all houses now seemed under attack.
1538
Mass dissolution
Cromwell embarks on dissolution of remaining large monasteries – 202
‘surrendered’ in 16 months
1539
Second Act of Dissolution of the
Legitimised the aforementioned ‘voluntary surrenders’ and gave Cromwell
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Monasteries
parliamentary sanction. Scarisbrick: the act ‘ratified a fait accompli’
1540
Surrender of Waltham Abbey
Final nail in the coffin of monasticism in England in March 1540
All major properties had now been transferred to Crown. 563 houses dissolved, 8000 monks pensioned, 2000 nuns left with nothing,
Crown income doubled from £120,000 p.a. to £250,000 p.a., with the resale value of monastic lands standing at £1.3million
Opposition to Dissolution
 ‘There was a real problem facing the King and his advisers, a real problem of disaffection, disobedience and
disturbance’ – Geoffrey Elton (pre-revisionist view)
Reasons for Opposition
 Fundamental theological opposition – the reformation was seen by many as the onset of Protestantism and a
threat to the traditional beliefs of England
o Purgatory under threat – the abolition of Papal authority and the destruction of the monasteries seemed an
attack on the doctrine of Purgatory and justification by ‘good works’ inc. the saying of masses for the
dead
 Disagreement over dissolution itself – for both social (good works undertaken for communities) and religious
(removal of bastions of Catholicism) reasons
 Fear of taxation – rumours of possible introduction of taxes on traditional services, such as christening, burials
and marriages
Reasons for Lack of Opposition (see: The King’s Great Matter - Opposition to Royal Supremacy)
 ‘Because the reformation as piecemeal, the significance of the pieces was not recognized, and this was the key to
its success’ - Christopher Haigh
 Intimidation: over 500 executions for treason between 1534 and 1540, inc. More, Fisher and 3 Carthusian priors
under Treason Act
 Dissolution itself prevented the monasteries becoming centres of opposition
 Expectation that Henry would remain Catholic whatever undermined opposition
 Intelligence: Cromwell’s network of informers, coupled with his intelligence, enough to keep people quiet
 Many did not anticipate that the changes would last – ‘these things will not last long, I warrant you’ – a London
priest, 1536
 Self interest – many clergymen went along with the reformation as they though it improved their prospects, many
laymen gained considerable land and thus wealth through ‘the single greatest transfer of land in English history’ –
Scarisbrick
 Protestantism welcomed – by some, such as Anne Boleyn, Cranmer and Cromwell at court
 No noticeable changes – for those not involved in monasticism, the changes were minimal. Everyone still went to
Church on a Sunday for the same mass they had known for generations
Government methods to suppress opposition
 Printed propaganda – the government undertook an intensive ‘fully-scale propaganda campaign’ (Elton), but it’s
hard to see what an effect this had on a largely illiterate public
 The pulpit – 1536 act allows Cromwell to licence all preachers, preaching in Churches designed to spread
message of fear esp. w/r to Law of Treason
 Injunctions – removal of ‘superstitious images’ (1536), English bibles made mandatory (1538)
 The Law of Treason – resulted in the execution of 308 people between 1532 and 1540
- Unity of Church and State – criticism of church doctrine = criticism of Henry = treason
 Oaths – e.g. Oath of Supremacy
 Visitations – e.g. Valor Ecclesiasticus
The Lincolnshire Rising
 Could be seen as a precursor to the Pilgrimage of Grace,
 In response to visitations after the Act of Dissolution in 1536, unpopular in their questioning of fundamental and
revered institutions such as churches and monasteries
 Tensions raised by three government bodies working in area to collect subsidies, dissolve monasteries and
enforce religious laws
 Atmosphere of panic and alarm, news spread by word of mouth, fear or land seizures and the disappearance of
monastic treasures such as processional crosses as well as accusations of dishonest tax collection
 Key leader was Nicholas Melton (a shoemaker nicknamed ‘Captain Cobbler), who assembled a hardcore of about
20 supporters, mainly labourers such as blacksmiths and shoemakers
 Gaining support as they marched, a crown of 10,000 reached Lincoln with the intention of capturing the
commissioners, crowd included peasants, priests and even armed monks
 The Bishop of Lincoln was murdered and his possessions spread among the crowd in a symbolic act
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Duke of Suffolk dispatched to Lincoln on the King’s command, arrived only after the rebellion had died down
o It was condemned as treason, but crowds reluctant to listen and the unrest continued for a further 12 days
On their return, the protestors carried a banner with the five wounds of Christ, which are the focus of specific
prayers in the Catholic tradition > Catholic symbol upheld against perceived Protestant threat
Pilgrimage of Grace
 Traditionally accepted as a failure as it was defeated at Carlisle in 1373, and followed by severe repressions
o The Pilgrims failed to achieve goals as set out in The Pontefract Articles in terms of removing Cromwell
and restoring the monasteries
 October until December 1536, north of the river Trent
 While a failure in terms of the individual demands of the pilgrims, it was successful in terms of presenting a real
threat to Henry and Cromwell
o Evidence: they must have achieved something, as they dispersed without using their forces which could
have easily crushed those of the King
 It was less a military rising, more a large, peaceful show of force attracting 40,000 men in comparison with the
King’s 6000
o Evidence: if it was meant as a military rising, the Pilgrims would not have dispersed as easily as they did
 ‘The strength of the rising... lay in the existence of a common denominator to the grievances - bad government’
 Different groups had different complaints and aims:
o Clergy and monks – religious motives: understandably angry at the religious changes and specifically the
beginning of the dissolution
o Nobles – political motives: disliked the King’s use of base-born councillors, feared a loss of influence
o Peasants – economics motives: rising taxes (e.g. ‘gressomes’, a tax on newly acquired land), and rumours
of malpractice in the collection of dues, poor harvests in previous years meant widespread dissatisfaction
 The Pilgrimage was ‘a conservative reaction for a past golden age’
 The rebels could have destroyed the King’s forces and marched on London; they were not a rabble but a wellharnessed and armed force. It was a testament to their peaceful aims that they dispersed peacefully
o This was the only way to ensure their feelings were heard
 They supported the status quo and the established social and religious order – it was not an anarchic communist
movement – but they believed it should stay as it was
 ‘the Pilgrims were protesting against an unprecedented intrusion by the crown into their local communities and
traditional ways’ - Williams
 Concessions and achievements of the Pilgrims:
o the government stopped collecting the subsidy and suspended plans to regulate the cloth industry
o fears of extra taxes and the demolition of parish churches were condemned as rumour by the government
The Effects of Dissolution

Area
Society
Culture
Neither a rise in power of the aristocracy nor the gentry, it was a move from ‘the predominance of the few to a
general power vested in large numbers’ - Geoffrey Elton
Short-term
Opposition from all hierarchies
Increased poverty among peasant classes
Transfer of property from Church and State to private individuals
Long-term
Establishment of property rights, see Statue of Wills, 1540
Decline in Church giving
Destruction on monastic buildings and artefacts
Loss of centres of learning
Secularization of education and learning
Creating of new grammar schools in Canterbury, Carlisle, Ely,
Bristol and Chester. Colleges at Oxbridge
Loss of books and manuscripts, historical evidence
Church
Dislocation of previous religious provision
Increased numbers of priests in parishes (maybe even an
improvement in quality of preaching)
Creation of new bishoprics in 1540
Historiography of the Reformation
 Williams: slow reformation from above – legal reform doesn’t affect popular religion, Catholicism only broken
by Elizabeth’s reign
 Elton: rapid reformation from above – all part of a political agenda of nationalisation along Henry’s lines
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
Dickens: rapid reformation from below – Catholicism undermined as a result of its own vices, on the basis of
Lollardy
The Impact of the Reformation on King, Parliament and Finances: the ‘Revolution in
Government’
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
Geoffrey Elton - ‘Tudor revolution in government’
Thomas Cromwell central to all changes
Theological Change in England
 Significant development of religious beliefs and practices
 Possible influences include Cromwell (Lutheran), response to PofG, international events (e.g. relationship
between Francis I and Charles V), or in fact Henry’s own religious beliefs (G.W. Bernard)
 Death of Catherine of Aragon in January 1536 and execution of Anne Boleyn in May 1536 offered time to
reconsider theological position of Church in England
 Many contemporaries believed royal supremacy was temporary, however dissolution of smaller monasteries in
1536 seemed to challenge this belief
Act of 10 Articles - 1536
 Passed July 1536 not an attack on Catholicism and not a new statement of belief; meant to correct inconsistencies
and disputes
 Published by protestant Cranmer
 In essence, they established:
o the sacraments of penance, baptism and the Eucharist
o the ‘substantial, real, corporal presence’ of Christ’s body and blood at the Eucharist
o justification by faith and good works
o the use of images in Churches
o the honouring of the Saints inc. the Virgin Mary
o rites and ceremonies
o the doctrine of purgatory
 CONCLUSION: Catholic. Little new or Lutheran, Catholic beliefs of the Eucharist confirmed but without the use
of the word ‘transubstantiation’, some evidence of new ideas on purgatory but still allowed for prayers to the dead
The Bishops’ Book - 1537
 Despite being made binging in 1536, the Act of 10 did little to resolve anxieties about beliefs. Result: Bishop’s
Book
 Published in 1537, written by Cranmer with 46 bishops
 Theological outcomes:
o no mention of transubstantiation
o salvation by faith was emphasised
 The publication of the Mathew Bible occurred shortly afterwards
 CONCLUSION: Cautiously Lutheran. considered ‘reforming’ in its orientation, but not all-out Lutheran
John Lambert - 1538
 Befriended William Tyndale (humanist) and various Lutherans
 Disputed transubstantiation and antagonised Henry
 On the day of his execution in 1538 (by burning for heresy), Henry issued a proclamation upholding
transubstantiation , clerical celibacy and forbidding heretical literature
o CONCLUSION: Shows a move back toward Catholicism, however here is the voice of Henry not
Cranmer and the bishops
Act of Six Articles - 1539
 Seen as a response to doctrinal division after Lambert case and as a worried answer to the appearance of three
Lutheran clerics who were holding conferences with Anglican bishops
 Also, Pope Paul’s call for Henry to be overthrown > led to parliament of 1539 resulting in Act of Six
 Theological outcomes:
o upheld transubstantiation
o communion in one kind (i.e. wafer but not wine for the laity)
o clerical celibacy
o held that vows of chastity were binding under divine law
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
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o private masses permissible
o reaffirmed importance of auricular confession
The penalties for transgression were severe at first, THOUGH reduced to death only for denying
transubstantiation by an act of 1540
Cranmer moved from England with his wife and children after the act was passed
Not intended solely for domestic consumption, intended to send a message to foreign leaders that in England was
‘Catholicism without the Pope, monasteries and pilgrimages’ , reinforced by resignation of Shaxton and Latimer
(reformist bishops)
CONCLUSION: Catholic due to external pressures and perceived dangers of Protestantism in terms of control
post-Lambert
King’s Book - 1543
 Attributed to Henry, defended transubstantiation, masses for the dead and the Act of Six, rejected sola fide, while
encouraging preaching and attacking the use of images
 Far more openly conservative that the Bishops’ Book
Political Changes – the King’s Power
 Increased by 1539 Act of Proclamations that meant King’s proclamations were to carry came weight as acts of
parliament
 Also in 1539, an act limited the right to sit in the Lords to hereditary peers increased its importance through
refined social status
 Reformation parliament brought increase in power of Privy Council as all acts stemmed from there, whereas
before they’d been those that mattered to the members themselves which were passed in return for tax revenues to
the king
 Cromwell aimed to create a unified state over which the King and the House of Commons had control
 The reformation changed not only the King’s power but how far it reached. Henry was afraid of opposition, so
sought regulation to augment his control.
The Privy Council
 Informal group of around King of 19 members by 1540
 Membership had traditionally aristocratic focus though nobles in minority compared to those ennobled by (and
loyal to) Henry
 Formed around 1536 as a reaction to the PofG, recognition of need for small group capable of fast action
 Focussed on advising on and executing policy decisions
o Star Chamber (comprised same members + 2 chief justices) and Court of Requests handled judicial
functions – considered separate and had own distinct meeting schedules
 The move from the Tudor Council (of 40+ members which worked in a variety of advisory and judicial areas)to the
Privy Council meant greater efficiency (as there were far less members) and a reduction in the King’s direct
involvement, departmentalisation of government = TUDOR REVOLUTION IN GOVERNMENT
 Geoffrey Elton: this was a part of Cromwell’s master-plan
o Evidence: by 1535 Cromwell is responsible for drawing up all agendas and his staff take minutes,
conduct meetings and implement the decisions
o Just a few weeks after Cromwell’s death (July 1540), the Privy Council sought to appoint a new clerk to
‘write, enter and register all such decrees
o ‘The Privy Council remained dependent on Cromwell’s own staff for all its secretarial work. In this way
he kept control’
o Result: Cromwell dominated an otherwise independent body
Sanctuaries
 Originally areas around the altar, but over time had become entire districts which couldn’t be entered by the
King’s law officers, thus making them a safe haven for criminals and, crucially, political agitators
 1540 act of parliament abolished the rights of most sanctuaries as havens petty criminals and completely for
serious crimes such as arson, murder, burglary etc.
Franchises and Liberties
 In 1536 an act was passed to restrict the rights of franchises and liberties (in effect semi-independent regions) to
run gaols, hold courts and appoint justices of the peace > lost control over law enforcement
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
The act identified the full and national legal authority of the King and his heirs
Wales and Calais
 Idea of renaissance kingship > complete national control
 Wales was the largest part of Henry’s kingdom over which he didn’t have control; it was under the power of
nobles known as the marcher lords
 Cromwell appointed a colleague as president of the Council in the Marches and transferred the trial of serious
criminals to English courts as early as 1534
 From 1536, two acts removed the semi-autonomy of Wales:
o The appointment of justices of the peace in Wales, synchronising the two judicial systems
o An act incorporating Wales into England, dissolving marcher lordships and in 1543 integrating some land
into English shires. New Welsh counties were created that enabled their representation in the Commons
 Calais was integrated into the English system of governance in a similar way to Wales in 1536, allowing for the
election of two MPs to the commons
Parliament
 Parliament summoned for two reasons: to raise taxes (it was a principle that King couldn’t tax his people without
parliamentary permission) and legislations (in which the assent of the commons was as important as that of the
Lords, they both were equal despite the prestige of the upper house
 Increase in the importance of Lords and Commons as a result of:
o Increased frequency: annually from 1529-36 and frequently after that
o Cromwell’s tendency to use statute where not always necessary. Why?
 The King wanted to be assured of his most important subjects’ support
 Statutes were the highest form of law, and thus could be enforced with the fullest of force
 Elton: He took the ideas of the time and ‘showed how they could be turned into reality by means
of acts of parliament’
o Move into legislating on religious matters gave parliament a wider mandate, esp. considering the
integration of church into state
 Importance of parliament post-reformation is emphasized by Lotherington (‘by 1540 Parliament had emerged as
the sovereign legislator... its laws were not only supreme but omnicompetent’) and Elton (see above)
State Finances
 Until 1530 all money went to the Exchequer, some went to Privy Chamber
 Traditional system in place until 1530s was focussed on royal household, and functioned effectively
o V. close supervision of all money in and out held in King’s strong rooms e.g. Jewel House, Westminster,
therefore constant knowledge of funds available at King’s disposal
o Disadvantage – effective system relied on close royal supervision not suitable for large revenues as a
result of dissolution
 Creation of organised financial departments to administer income began in 1536:
o The Office of General Surveyors – 1536 – Household income (e.g. royal lands)
o Court of Augmentations – 1536 – Income from monastic lands
o Court of Wards – 1540 – Income from administering feudal dues
o Court of First Fruits and Tenths – 1541 – Income from ecclesiastical dues (diverted from Rome by
1534 Act of Conditional Restraint of Annates)
 Used to finance Cromwell’s policies before his death – treasurer was John Gostwick, Cromwell’s
personal servant
o Court of General Surveyors – 1542 – handled confiscated monastic lands
o BOLD = handled income resulting from dissolution of monasteries
 Their foundation due to Cromwell’s bureaucratic institutions being better than informal household arrangements
 These functioned independent of the King, however Cromwell seems to have had a great degree of control > e.g.
Court of First Fruits and Tenths used to finance his own policies, only becoming a free-standing institution after
his death
 HOWEVER – all surplus revenue not used for Council’s expenses went to King, therefore:
o Bureaucratic revolution in collecting and accounting income
o Saving and spending still a household decision – made my King and Privy Council
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King’s Secretary
 Traditionally, three main roles: secretarial (letters etc.), managing the signet (seal used to authorize royal orders),
routine work BUT gave access to great degree of government business
 Cromwell exploited lack of set role and access to government business by extending his influence to every area of
public life
 Geoffrey Elton: took the traditional role out of the household and made it one of the key offices of state
 Transition recognized by 1539 Act of Precedence, where it was listed as one of the ‘great offices of the realm’
 However, no permanent change in the role of the secretary – split into two positions after Cromwell’s death
 CONCLUSION: likely that Cromwell was motivated in these changes by an opportunity to meet his own political
ends, rather than a desire to change the role of the secretary in the long-term.
o John Lotherington: ‘the ascendancy of Cromwell’s secretaryship was primarily a personal one’
Historiography
 Geoffrey Elton: ‘Tudor revolution in government’
 Revisionist approach - David Starkey: Revolution Re-Assessed: Revisions in the History of Tudor Government and
Administration – Limited changes focussed on Church
Conclusion
 REVOLUTION, EVOLUTION, OR CROMWELL?
 Vast increase in wealth made necessary the creation of new bodies to administer it
 HOWEVER:
o many departments not fully institutionalised until after Cromwell’s death (e.g. Privy Council, Court of
First Fruit and Tenths) > his need to retain control acted as a brake on bureaucratic development
o no clear distinction between departments and the household – many shared the same staff
o Cromwell moved to reform the state where it was necessary but without undermining his power
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