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Chapter 6: Memory Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Memory The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Encoding Refers to the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to memory Storage The maintenance of material saved in the memory system Retrieval Material in memory storage is located, brought into awareness, and used Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Three Systems of Memory: Sensory Memory The initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant Echoic memory – Stores auditory information coming from the ears Iconic memory – Reflects informatio n from our visual system Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Three Systems of Memory: Short-Term Memory Memory store in which information first has meaning May hold approximately 7 (plus or minus 2) chunks of information – A chunk is a meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in shortterm memory Holds information for approximately 15 to 20 seconds PBSFOXCNNABCCBSMTVNBC PBS FOX CNN ABC CBS MTV NBC Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Three Systems of Memory: Short-Term Memory Rehearsal – The repetition of information that has entered short-term memory Mnemonics – Formal techniques for organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered Elaborative rehearsal – Occurs when information is considered and organized in some fashion resulting in a greater likelihood to be transferred into long-term memory Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. The Three Systems of Memory: Long-Term Memory A storehouse of almost unlimited capacity Information in long-term memory is filed and coded so that we can retrieve it when we need it Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Contemporary Approaches To Memory Working memory – View of short-term memory as an active “workspace” in which information is retrieved and manipulated, and in which information is held through rehearsal Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Working Memory Central Executive Processor (reasoning and decision making) Visual store Verbal store (visual & spatial information) (speech, words, & numbers) Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Models of Memory Associative model – Memory consists of mental representations of clusters of interconnected information Spreading activation – Activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories Priming – Phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept later makes it easier to recall related information Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Modules of Memory Explicit memory – Intentional or conscious recollection of information Implicit memory – Memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Recalling Long-Term Memories Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – Inability to recall information that one realizes one knows Retrieval cue – Stimulus that allows us to recall more easily information that is located in long-term memory Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Recalling Long-Term Memories Levels-of-processing theory – Emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed Flashbulb memories – Memories around a specific, important, or surprising event that are so vivid they represent a virtual snapshot of the event Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Constructive Process in Memory Constructive process – Processes in which memories are influenced by the meaning that we give to events Schemas – Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Recalling Long-Term Memories Memory in the courtroom – Repressed memory – False memory Autobiographical memory – Recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Forgetting: Herman Ebbinghaus Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Forgetting: When Memory Fails Decay – Loss of information through nonuse – Assumes that when new material is learned a memory trace appears (actual physical change in the brain Interference – Information in memory displaces or blocks out other information, preventing its recall Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Proactive Interference Information learned earlier interferes with recall of newer material Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Retroactive Interference Difficulty in recall of information because of later exposure to different material Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Biological Bases of Memory Long-term potentiation – Certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned Consolidation – Changes in the number of synapses between neurons as the dendrites branch out to receive messages and memories become fixed and stable in long-term memory Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Memory Dysfunctions Alzheimer’s disease – An illness that includes among its symptoms severe memory problems Korsakoff’s syndrome – A disease afflicting longterm alcoholics Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Memory Dysfunctions Amnesia – Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties Retrograde amnesia – Memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event Anterograde amnesia – Loss of memory occurs for events following an injury Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.