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Motivation Questionnaires Motivation to Manage CLASS MEAN 35 HISTORICAL MEAN 34 ERG CLASS MEAN E 17 R 15 G 16 HISTORICAL MEAN 17 15 16 PROCESS THEORIES Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Goal-Setting Theory (Ch. 6) Equity Theory Concepts Inputs Outcomes rewards employees receive from the organization Referent Persons employee contributions to the organization comparison others Outcome/Input (O/I) ratio Outcomesself = Outcomesother Inputsself Inputsother Consequences Of Inequity Under-reward Anger Perceived Inequity Tension Motivation to Change Tension Motivation to Change Dissatisfaction Guilt Over-reward How People React to Perceived Inequity (feeling under-paid) Reduce inputs Increase outcomes Rationalize inputs or outcomes Change the referent person Leave (e.g., change jobs) EXPECTANCY THEORY Analyzes the parts of the Motivation Process that the Leader must attend to (cf., Path-Goal Theory of Leadership) Has the greatest Breadth of popular motivation theories EXPECTANCY THEORY E P (Expectancy) P O (Intrumentality) What is the probability What is the probability that I can perform at the that my good performance required level if will lead to desired I try? outcomes? Effort Performance Valence What value do I place on the potential outcome? Outcomes MULTIPLICATIVE RELATIONSHIP If any of the three (Expectancy, Instrumentality, or Valence) equal Zero, then there is No Motivation. Ranking Rewards How do you think 1000 non-managers ranked the following? (1 = highest) _2_ _4_ _7_ _3_ _5_ _9_ _8_ _1_ 10_ _6_ Work done being appreciated Job security Good working conditions Feeling of being in on things Good wages Tactful discipline Organization being loyal to employees Interesting work Sympathetic help with personal problems Promotion and growth opportunities Applying Expectancy Theory Increase Expectancy: Enhance employees’ skills Build up employees’ confidence Increase Instrumentality Clearly link rewards to performance Increase Valences Find jobs out what employees want from their How do we learn? Classical Conditioning Learn by experiencing two stimuli occurring close in time Operant Conditioning Learn from consequences of behaviors Social Learning Learn by observing others Classical Conditioning Involuntary reflexes Behavior is “elicited” Neutral Stimulus becomes “conditioned” through association with an “unconditioned” one Thus, the formerly neutral stimulus now elicits the response previously elicited only by the “unconditioned” stimulus Operant Conditioning Voluntary Behavior Behavior is “emitted” Associations learned among Stimulus, Response, and Consequence The focus is on learning to obtain positive outcomes and avoid negative ones Behavior is “Shaped” through small, reinforced steps Social Learning Also called “Modeling” and “Vicarious Learning” Observe someone else (the Model) Consequences to Model are important Can be considered a sub-category of Operant Conditioning MAJOR ELEMENTS OF REINFORCEMENT THEORY Stimulus Supervisor requests faster work Response Employee increases or decreases speed or does nothing Consequence Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinf. (Avoidance), Extinction, Punishment BEHAVIORAL CONSEQUENCES To Motivate Employees to Continue Desired Behaviors To Motivate Employees to Cease Undesirable Behaviors Positive Reinforcement (Good outcome if you continue) Extinction (No outcome whether you continue or not) Negative Reinforcement (Bad outcome if you don’t continue) Punishment (Bad outcome if you don’t stop) Spacing or Timing of Reinforcements SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Fixed Variable Fixed Interval Variable Interval Passage of Time Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Number of Times Behavior Occurs Basis for Determining Frequency of Reinforcement SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: EXTINCTION The less predictable Reinforcement was in the past, the more difficult behavior is to extinguish (Resistance to Extinction) --Intermittent (Partial) Schedules are more resistant than Continuous (100%) --Variable Schedules are more resistant than Fixed
