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CHAPTER 2
A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you read and analyze this chapter, you should be able to:
1.
Describe some of the economic constraints that pushed European rulers to promote exploration
and colonization in North America and understand the political and religious rivalries that
influenced European choices regarding New World colonization.
2.
Explain the similarities and differences that characterized the choices made by Spanish, French,
and Dutch officials in starting their empires in North America and analyze how the choices made
by colonists themselves placed constraints on administrative policies.
3.
Analyze the constraints environmental changes and the arrival of Europeans placed on Indians as
well as the opportunities that the Europeans brought with them and evaluate the social and
political choices the Indians made in response to these changes.
4.
List the constraints that most affected the lives of the settlers in New Mexico, Louisiana, and New
Netherland and analyze how the choices made by settlers and American Indians helped them deal
with these constraints.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I.
The New Europe and the Atlantic World
A. Spanish Expansion in America
1. The papacy averted potential conflict between Spain and Portugal over which country
had the right to explore and settle the Western Hemisphere.
a) As a result of the line drawn by the pope and the Treaty of Tordesillas, most of
the Western Hemisphere fell to Spain, with the exception of Brazil (to Portugal).
2. Spain’s policy for its possessions in the Western Hemisphere included Christianization
of the American Indians, expansion of Spain’s holdings, trade, and the discovery of
gold and silver.
a) Columbus was unable to accomplish much in the way of advancing Spain’s
policy.
b) Hernando Cortés expanded Spain’s dominion with the conquest of the Aztecs in
Mexico.
c) Juan Ponce de Leon expanded Spanish control to Florida.
d) Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Hernando de Soto, and Francisco Vásquez de
Coronado explored large sections of the south and south-central portions of the
later United States.
3. Gold and silver became the main goal of Spain’s conquistadors and royal officials.
a) Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire for its gold.
b) The Spanish turned to slavery to mine the silver and gold that made Spain the
richest nation in Europe.
B. Dreams of an English Eden
1. Spain’s new wealth and the conflict between Catholics and Protestants led to conflict
with other nations, especially England, beginning in the reign of Queen Elizabeth.
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Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
a)
b)
She supported the rebellion of the Protestants of the Netherlands against Spain.
She authorized attacks by privateers like Francis Drake on Spanish possessions
and shipping.
2. Spain’s King Philip II supported plots by Catholics inside England to overthrow
Elizabeth.
a) Mary Queen of Scots plotted to seize the English throne, for which she was
executed and which led to greater tension between the two countries.
3. Elizabeth embarked on a policy of establishing English colonies in the New World.
a) In part, her intention was to deal with a shortage of farmland and to meet the
needs of English merchants for greater opportunities.
b) English expansion there was also another way to oppose Spain.
4. Sir Walter Raleigh established the colony of Roanoke off the coast of Virginia.
a) It followed an unsuccessful attempt by Sir Humphrey Gilbert to establish a
colony off the coast of Newfoundland.
b) Sir Walter chose a more southern location because it would block the Spanish in
Florida.
C. The Decline of Spanish Power
1. Gold and silver from the Western Hemisphere led to wealth—but also to trouble.
a) The influx of money caused severe inflation throughout Europe.
b) Increasing prices created social unrest, which in turn contributed to greater
interest in colonization in the Western Hemisphere.
2. Philip II decided to invade England.
a) The Spanish monarch decided to wage war with England as part of the battle
against Protestantism and to block English colonization in the New World.
b) In 1588, Philip attempted to invade England with the Armada, but he met with
disaster.
c) Though Spanish power would remain great, the Armada disaster effectively
brought an end to Spain’s near monopoly over New World colonization.
II. European Empires in America
A. The Troubled Spanish Colonial Empire
1. Spain’s New World empire was in decline during the eighteenth century.
a) It was too large to govern efficiently, and its officials were often corrupt.
b) Bureaucratic and church interference in the labor system and taxes were
continual problems.
B. The French Presence in America
1. Although France made a number of efforts to compete with Spain’s New World
projects, Spanish power was sufficient to prevent any major successes.
2. Only after 1663 did the French crown begin to intervene, and New France became a
royal colony in 1674.
3. Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, recognized the strategic and economic promise in
Joliet and Marquette’s discovery of the Mississippi River.
a) The acquisition of Louisiana was a major accomplishment for La Salle and for
France.
C. The Dutch Enterprise
1. By the 1630s, the Dutch dominated the African slave trade and had conquered a
number of Caribbean islands.
2. Henry Hudson’s search for the Northwest Passage gave Holland its first serious claim
to American territory.
3. New Netherland attracted a diverse population and offered patroonships to any
company stockholder willing and able to bring 50 colonists at his own expense.
III. Indians and the European Challenge
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Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
A.
15
The Indian Frontier in New Spain
1. Indian assistance had been crucial to Spain’s victories over the Aztecs and Incas.
2. The 1598 Oñate Expedition executed and enslaved Indians who resisted the Spanish
incursion.
a) Oñate’s excesses led to his removal, and some of his company founded Santa Fe
in 1609.
b) The 1680 Pueblo Revolt overthrew the Spanish, but they returned to Santa Fe in
1693.
B. The Indian World in the Southeast
1. Since access to gold and easy enslavement of Indians was not possible here, the
conquistadors moved on.
2. Although Spanish presence in the region was minor, the impact of Spanish diseases on
the Indians was enormous.
3. The Creek Confederacy balanced the competing demands of European powers and
took advantage of the competition between them.
C. The Indian World in the Northeast
1. The Hurons and their allies aligned themselves with the French; the Iroquois League
sided with the English.
2. Enthusiastic about trade with the Dutch, the Iroquois soon wiped out fur supplies in
their own territory and began an even more serious push to acquire new lands.
a) Non-Iroquois Indians resented the Dutch presence.
D. The New Indian World of the Plains
1. The same forces of climate change, the pressure of shifting populations, and novel
European goods created a new culture and economy among the Plains Indians.
a) Before 1400, Plains Indians rarely strayed from riverways that form the Missouri
River drainage.
b) The Ice Age greatly increased the number of buffalo on the plains.
c) Some Caddo Indian groups abandoned their agricultural villages in exchange for
a mobile hunting lifestyle.
d) The increase in buffalo also served as a magnet to draw new groups into the area.
e) Introduced by the Spanish, horses became a mainstay of the southern plains
buffalo hunting culture.
2. The continual demand for horses, accompanied by the pressure for hunting ranges
created a new dynamic on the plains and set a new economy into motion.
IV. Conquest and Accommodation in a Shared World
A. New Spain’s Northern Frontiers
1. The most attractive economic enterprise was still ranching.
2. New Mexicans looked northward for trading opportunities, since they were largely
removed from the imperial economy centered around Mexico City.
B. Life in French Louisiana
1. Despite the territory’s strategic location, its fertile soils, and large populations of furbearing animals, few Frenchmen showed any interest in settlement.
a) In spite of the Choctaw alliance, which guaranteed ample food supplies and made
territorial acquisition possible, Louisiana remained unattractive to French
farmers.
C. The Dutch Settlements
1. As an alternative to patroonships, the West India Company offered to grant a tract of
land to any free man who agreed to farm it.
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Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
IDENTIFICATIONS
Identify the following items and explain the significance of each. While you should include any
relevant historical terms, using your own words to write these definitions will help you better remember
these items for your next exam.
1.
Bartolomé de Las Casas
2.
Council of Valladolid
3.
Treaty of Tordesillas
4.
Hernando Cortés
5.
decimation
6.
conquistadors
7.
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
8.
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
9.
Stuart kings
10. the Netherlands/Holland/Dutch
11. privateer
12. Elizabeth I
13. Sir Walter Raleigh
14. Roanoke Island
15. inflation
16. armada
17. cabildo secular
18. feudal
19. encomienda system
20. serfs
21. Saint Augustine
22. Samuel de Champlain
23. New France
24. Company of New France
25. coureurs du bois
26. Community of Habitants of New France
27. Cardinal Richelieu
28. Company of the West
29. Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle
30. Louisiana
31. Henry Hudson
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Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
32. Northwest Passage
33. Dutch West India Company
34. patroonship
35. burghers
36. New Netherland
37. Don Juan de Oñate
38. Ácoma pueblo
39. Hopi Indians
40. Santa Fe
41. ascetic
42. katsina dolls
43. Pueblo Revolt
44. missionaries
45. Creek Confederacy
46. Fort Orange
47. Mohicans
48. buffalo
49. Caddoan
50. Lakotas/Dakotas
51. subsistence farming
52. Natchez Indians
53. Chickasaw Indians
54. Choctaw Indians
55. Creole
56. bosch loopers
57. Dutch Reform Church
58. “brown gold”
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Select the correct answer.
1.
The papacy’s potential to play a major part in the colonization of the New World was
demonstrated by
a.
Henry VIII’s break from Rome.
b. the destruction of the Spanish Armada.
c.
the Treaty of Tordesillas.
d. the excommunication of King Philip II by the pope.
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17
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Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
2.
The conquest of the Aztecs in Mexico demonstrated the importance of
a.
military help provided by the Portuguese to the Spanish.
b. epidemic diseases in overwhelming Native American populations.
c.
very large armies of conquistadors.
d. African slave labor in supporting Spanish armies.
3. Attempts at colonization by the English during the reign of Queen Elizabeth
a.
were a consequence of her anti-Spanish foreign policy.
b. succeeded in Newfoundland.
c.
floundered and failed when the English sought to seize Mexico.
d. were undermined by Sir Walter Raleigh.
4. Tension between the Catholic Church and settlers in Spanish America could be traced in part to
a.
a tendency among the settlers to revert to paganism.
b. the fact that the church had to pay taxes but colonists did not.
c.
the church’s efforts to protect Native Americans from outright exploitation for their labor.
d. the church’s monopoly of all government positions.
5. Despite the existence of many problems in the governance of Spain’s colonies, the Spanish
Empire flourished because of
a.
the immense wealth it produced.
b. its control of all lands along the Mississippi River.
c.
the Treaty of Tordesillas.
d. None of these
6. France’s claim to the vast region of Louisiana was based on
a.
a grant of it by the papacy to the king of France.
b. the French military victory over the Spanish at the Battle of Santa Fe.
c.
the discovery and traverse of the Mississippi River by French explorers.
d. a French alliance with the English against the Netherlands.
7. French settlement in the New World remained small and limited in part because
a.
French colonists preferred fur trapping to agriculture.
b. warfare on the frontier was a constant threat to life and limb.
c.
the French crown never showed any interest in its possessions in America.
d. France’s possessions always remained small in size.
8. To cope with changing conditions, Native Americans like the Creeks
a.
chose to abandon their homelands and migrate westward.
b. turned to alliances and diplomacy.
c.
took their lives in order to appease the gods.
d. enacted laws proscribing any contact with Europeans.
9. To shore up their respective positions, French and Dutch competitors in the Northeast
a.
united in common against the Spanish.
b. signed a great treaty in which they divided up the entire region.
c.
quickly transported thousands of new colonists to their respective regions.
d. forged alliances with Indians who were in competition with each other.
10. The Little Ice Age caused many Plains Indians to
a.
shift to a more mobile way of life.
b. abandon the region for the warmer, drier climate of the Southwest.
c.
quickly convert to Christianity since their own gods seemed to have failed them.
d. turn to warfare against the French.
11. The Pueblo Revolt led to
a.
a decision by the Spanish to permanently abandon the New Mexico region.
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Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
12.
13.
14.
15.
19
b. a mass uprising by Native Americans against Europeans throughout North America.
c.
the spread of a new economy based on horse transport.
d. a new religion formulated by Indian shamans.
Bosch loopers most resembled the
a.
coureurs du bois.
b. Plains Indians.
c.
encomenderos.
d. patroons.
Spanish settlers in the New Mexico region concentrated economically on
a.
raising cactus for export to Mexico City as a food supply.
b. ranching.
c.
mining gold and silver.
d. buffalo herding.
Santa Fe and New Netherland were similar in that
a.
trade with Europe was the economic mainstay in both cases.
b. French invaders periodically threatened them.
c.
each had a multicultural population.
d. both had large populations of enslaved Indians.
Settlers in New Mexico and in Louisiana were alike in that both
a.
extensively married Native American women.
b. shared the Protestant faith.
c.
depended on sheep ranching.
d. had to cope with significant population growth as new settlers from Europe rushed to their
colonies.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1.
In their empire, the Spanish played havoc with the Native Americans with whom they came in
contact. Do you agree?
DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: One element that you may wish to stress is the effect of
diseases introduced by the Spanish to the Native American population. Native Americans who
survived the epidemics that followed their first contact with the Spaniards then found themselves
forced to work for them; some became the equivalent of serfs under the encomienda system, while
others faced outright enslavement. Also, you should include discussion of the conditions that led
Native Americans to rebel against the Spanish and the terrible consequences that often ensued.
You should also describe efforts by the church to intervene on behalf of Native Americans—and
the way in which the conquistadors got around the church.
2.
One of the overriding facts of life in the French and Dutch empires in North America was the
small number of settlers their respective colonies attracted. Analyze the impact of the colonies’
inability to grow on their internal development.
DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: In the case of the French Empire, you should discuss the role
that religion played in curtailing immigration, with the result that France’s possessions did not
become culturally diverse. Furthermore, the absence of female French immigrants led to marriage
with the Native American population and the rise of a Creole population, particularly in
Louisiana. You might also describe the effects of an insufficient food supply (another result of too
few settlers) on economic and diplomatic relations with such Native Americans as the Natchez
and Choctaws. Finally, explain how the perennial shortage of labor led to reliance on slaves who
were imported from Africa.
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Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
In the case of New Netherland, show how, in contrast to France’s possessions, a culturally diverse
population developed as a result of efforts to attract more settlers to the Dutch colony. You might
also discuss how, in turn, the population’s complexity hindered efforts to administer the colony
efficiently.
3.
Both climate and contact with Europeans altered and reshaped the cultures of the Plains Indians.
Do you agree?
DEVELOPING YOUR ANSWER: Because the climate cooled, the Plains Indians shifted away
from agriculture to reliance on buffalo hunting and a nomadic style of life. Moreover, the region’s
population grew, as tribes from farther north found it necessary to migrate to the plains because of
severe winters.
Coupled with these changes attributable to climatic conditions, contact with Europeans brought
the horse to the plains. You should discuss not only the economic effects of this critically
important change but also the increased level of warfare among Native Americans, as well as the
conflicts with Spanish settlers that ensued. You might also note the exchange of enslaved Indians
for horses between Plains Indians and Spanish settlers.
MAP EXERCISES
1.
Analyze the information presented in Map 2.1. How did the geography of each region contribute
to its respective Indian economies?
2.
Using the information from this chapter, pick significant turning points in European exploration of
the New World. Using a blank outline map, develop a “snapshot” of at least one of these
important years. Think of what generalizations you could draw about the European power
situation based on each of the maps you develop.
INDIVIDUAL CHOICES
Bartolomé de Las Casas
To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Choices section at the beginning of the
chapter.
1.
What was the central issue of the 1550 council ordered by Spanish church officials?
2.
What historical evidence indicates that Las Casas was successful as a conquistador?
3.
For what reasons might Las Casas have begun advocating Christian rights for conquered Indians?
Why could each have played a role in this change?
4.
How did Las Casas use history to support his views?
5.
Identify the significance of the Leyes Nuevas.
6.
What new position did Las Casas assume? Was he effective in this post? Why or why not?
7.
Identify the significance of the Council of Valladolid and Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda.
8.
Why was Las Casas’s official victory not a victory in fact?
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Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
21
INDIVIDUAL VOICES
Examining a Primary Source: Bartolomé de Las Casas Argues for
the American Indians
To answer the following questions, consult the Individual Voices section at the end of the chapter.
1.
The introduction to this selection indicates that most witnesses were lacking what important
characteristic?
2.
What, exactly, is Las Casas asserting in this sentence (the first sentence)? How does this set up the
rest of his argument?
3.
What does the reference to writings by Saint Thomas tell us about Las Casas’s view of human
nature? How does it refute Sepúlveda’s claims concerning Indians?
4.
Judging from the brief excerpt from Las Casas’s argument, why do you suppose he won the
debate? Why would the Catholic Church have chosen to endorse and publicize his views and not
Sepúlveda’s?
RUBRIC: This exploration of the Spanish debate over the treatment of the Indians in their jurisdiction
is a good starting point for further exploration of how Europeans viewed the inhabitants of North
America. Using information from this and related chapters, identify significant Indian groups and
explain how each of the major European nations dealt with them. As you complete this rubric, think
about how important religion and religious beliefs were to the official and unofficial policies of each
nation.
INDIANS AND EUROPEAN
CONTACT
SPAIN
ENGLAND
FRANCE
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
1.
c.
The pope drew the treaty line that established where Spain and Portugal were to colonize.
See page 34.
a.
This had no effect on New World settlement. In fact, Henry’s concerns were primarily
domestic. See page 36.
b. While Spain’s loss of the Armada had implications for colonization, the papacy was not
directly connected. See pages 37-38.
d.
2.
b.
Philip II of Spain was staunchly anti-Protestant; he was not excommunicated. See page 37.
See pages 34-35.
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22
3.
Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
a.
The Spanish relied on help from Indians in Mexico. See pages 34-35.
c.
The conquerors numbered 600 Spanish soldiers. See pages 34-35.
d.
See pages 34-35.
a.
See pages 36-37.
b. The effort by Sir Humphrey Gilbert there ended because of adverse environmental
conditions. See pages 38-39.
4.
5.
6.
c.
They did no such thing. See pages 36-37.
d.
On the contrary, he established a colony on Roanoke Island. See page 38.
c.
See pages 38-39.
a.
See pages 38-39.
b.
See pages 38-39.
d.
For example, the secular government appointed the viceroys. See pages 38-39.
a.
That wealth was in the form of gold, silver, and copper. See pages 38-39.
b.
The reason was the great wealth they produced. See pages 38-39.
c.
The treaty merely divided areas of colonization between Spain and Portugal. See page 34.
d.
The correct answer is 5a.
c.
The explorers were Louis Joliet, Jacques Marquette, and Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La
Salle. See page 41.
a.
The pope assigned most of the New World to Spain and the remainder to Portugal. France
was not involved. See page 34.
b. The Spanish and French did not go to war in the New World. (Santa Fe was in New Mexico,
a Spanish province. See page 45.
d.
7.
a.
In any case, England supported the Netherlands. See page 37.
See pages 40-41.
b. In fact, the French intermarried with the Indians and entered into alliances with many, such
as the Hurons. See pages 40-41.
c.
Although the Crown at first showed little interest, its involvement after 1663 increased
markedly. See pages 40-41 and 51-53.
d. They spread across Canada and down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, where they
established Louisiana. See pages 40-41 and 51-53.
8.
b.
See page 46-47.
a.
When they did abandon their homes, they left their cities to reside in villages. See page 4647.
c.
See page 46-47.
d. They not only traded with them but, in some cases, entered into alliances with them. See
pages 46-47.
9.
d.
See page 46.
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Chapter 2: A Continent on the Move, 1400-1725
23
a.
Not only did they not do this, but also their differences over religion (the French were
Catholics, the Dutch Protestants) would have tended to preclude this.
b.
They did no such thing.
c.
The French failed to attract many settlers; and colonists in New Netherland as a rule
migrated there on their own.
10. a.
The connection was through the multiplication of the buffalo, a roving animal population.
See pages 47-48.
b.
On the contrary, new Indian groups moved in. See pages 47-48.
c.
There is no evidence for this.
d.
There is no evidence for this.
11. c.
As a result of the revolt, thousands of Spanish horses escaped and ran free. The Plains
Indians became dependent on them as a consequence. See pages 47-48.
a.
After they defeated the revolt, Spanish settlers returned to New Mexico. See page 45.
b.
Such never occurred.
d.
In fact, the rebellion began as an attempt to retain their existing religion. See page 45.
12. a.
Both lived in the woods and trapped fur-bearing animals. See pages 42 and 50.
b. These Indians depended on buffalo hunted on the open plains. The bosch loopers collected
furs in the northeastern woods. See pages 47-48 and 50.
c.
Encomenderos were Spaniards who worked their Indians on the land and in the mines. The
bosch loopers were fur trappers in New Netherland. See pages 39 and 52.
d. While both resided in New Netherland, a patroon was a large landowner. The bosch loopers
hunted furs. See pages 43 and 52.
13. b.
See pages 43 and 49-50.
a.
See13b. See pages 43 and 49-50.
c.
The region did not have gold or silver. See pages 43 and 49-50.
d.
The buffalo resided to the north on the Great Plains. See page 47.
14. c.
a.
See pages 40 and 42.
See pages 40 and 42.
b. Santa Fe was in the Spanish province of New Mexico, far from French bases of operation.
See pages 40 and 42.
d. In the Santa Fe region, the encomienda system with its near enslavement of Indians did not
arise. In New Netherland, the Dutch had little control over the Indians. See pages 40 and 42.
15. a.
See pages 50-52.
b.
Both were Catholic. See pages 50-52.
c.
While true in New Mexico, this was not true in Louisiana. See pages 50-52.
d. Louisiana remained under populated; New Mexico did not have silver and gold to attract
large-scale settlement. See pages 50-52.
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