Download File - IGCSE SOCIOLOGY

Sociology Paper 1 (November 2006)
Section A: Research Methods
1. Questionnaires and structured interviews are quantitative research
techniques much loved by the positivists. Postal questionnaires containing
'closed' questions (that is questions requiring a 'yes' or 'no' answer) are ideal
for scientific purposes. They are quick and cheap. The sample can be
controlled to ensure representation, the data is easily collated, and the
findings can be analysed statistically and generalised. There is no ambiguity
in the data and therefore it is more straightforward to draw conclusions.
Another group known as interpretive sociologists are rather critical about the
value of using questionnaires and structured interviews. They prefer
qualitative research methods, such as unstructured interviews and participant
observation studies. Both positivists and interpretive sociologists accuse
each other of producing research data that is affected by bias and distortion.
Positivists also claim that qualitative research lacks reliability, while
interpretive sociologists respond by saying that quantitative research lacks
validity.
(a)
What In sociological research, what is meant by the following terms
i. structured interviews
[2]
Interviews based on pre-set questions.
ii. representation
[2]
The ability to reproduce accurately in a sample the qualities of the wider
study group
iii. participant observation
[2]
A technique for gathering data that involves the researcher taking part in the
activities of the group under study
1
(b)
Describe two methods for selecting a sample when carrying out a
postal questionnaire.
[4]
random sampling
one in which each member of the sampling frame has an equal chance of
being selected because the samples are selected randomly
 simple random sampling – straightforward – drawing names
randomly from a hat or using a computer to select them
 stratified random sampling - when the sample is divided into
groups e.g age, gender and is equally representative.
 cluster sampling – involves sampling people from different areas ,
10 people from Leeds and 10 people form Manchester
Non-random sampling - one in which specific groups are targeted to suit
the particular study
 systematic sampling – having a list of names, sampling every 6th
name
 snowball sampling – this is where the researcher gets in touch with
a group, then that group introduces the researcher to another group,
then the other group introduces the researcher to the group the
researcher really wants to research
(c)
Explain one advantage and one disadvantage of using ‘open’
questions in an interview.
[4]
Advantages include:
 the ability of the respondent to answer in their own words –
the researcher can also clarify points and explore particular points with
them to find out what they really mean
 more depth to the questions – Allows the researcher to explore any
issues that come up in more depth and find out what the respondent
really thinks
 answers may throw up new leads for the researcher – what the
respondent says get the researcher to think about other areas of the
2
research that he might not have thought of before
 More freedom for the researcher - The researcher is not restricted
to pre-set questions.
Disadvantages include:
 difficult to collate the answers and analyse statistically – Can
be difficult to quantify results, as much of the data may be descriptive.
 irrelevant material may be collected – The interviewee may
digress from the topic
 expensive - High cost because of high researcher involvement.
 Time consuming - Can be time-consuming for the researcher and
respondent to do in-depth interviews
(d)
Distinguish between the terms reliability and validity.
[4]
Reliability
This is a measure of whether we can trust the data presented. It is usually a
reflection of whether the research can be repeated gaining the same results.
Validity
This is a measure of whether the data presented is a true reflection of the
situation being researched at that particular point in time. In other words
does it give us a true picture of the events?
(e)
Describe two reason why bias my occur when collecting data using a
postal questionnaire
[4]
Bias may occur:
 Because of the way the questions are worded – to get good
results depends on the respondent’s ability to understand the questions
if these are not very clear or are ambiguous then the respondent won’t
be able to answer them properly
 The low response rate of postal questionnaires – Can get a poor
response rate because people forget to send it back or lack motivation
or incentive to do so which will reflect in the results not being a good
3
enough cross section of people
 the difficulty of checking the authenticity of the answers Respondents may like the anonymity of a postal questionnaire and
therefore may be not very honest in giving answers to question and
there is no way the researcher can verify the answers
(f)
Describe two advantages and two disadvantages of qualitative
research
[8]
Advantages include:
 the depth and detail of information – Good for gaining an in-depth
picture of the social behaviour of the group or individual being studied.
 high validity – it is a true reflection of the situation being researched
at that particular point in time. In other words it gives the researcher
a true picture of the events?
 the opportunity to study people in their natural surroundings Good for observing ‘natural’ behaviour in the subjects own environment
because the researcher can learn a lot more about the subjects
 authenticity of data collected – Gives an in-depth and realistic
picture of the social behaviour of the group being studied
The disadvantages include:
 low reliability – May be difficult to generalise findings - Findings may
only apply to a particular situation or group.
 possible lack of objectivity/research results may be too
subjective - the observer may start to become too close to their
subjects and therefore write up their research too subjectively
 time consuming – this kind of research is time consuming. Needs a
high input from the observer in terms of time.
 Expensive – the costs are high because of high involvement of the
researcher and the amount of time spent doing the research.
4
Section B: Culture and Socialisation
2. The values of the culture in which we live define our roles and the
patterns of behaviour that go with these roles.
(a)
What is meant by the term values?
[2]
Values may be defined as the beliefs and goals held to be important in
society
(b)
Describe two roles that a child might have.
[4]
Examples might include the roles of
 son/daughter – he/she is expected to respect and listen to the
parents advice and not do anything to make them feel ashamed.
 Sibling – he/she is expected to be a good kind loving brother or sister
and to help them if they are in trouble
 student – he/she is expected to study hard and get good grades so
that the family will be proud
 grandchild – he/she is expected to listen show respect because the
grandparents are older. He/she is also expected to make regular visits
even if he/she has other things she would like to do.
(c)
Why might conflict arise between the different roles that a person
has?
[6]
 Individuals generally have and manage many roles.
 Roles consist of a set of rules or norms that function as plans or
blueprints to guide behavior.
 Roles are social positions that hold expectations for what we do.
 Roles specify what goals should be pursued, what tasks must be
accomplished, and what performances are required in a given
scenario or situation
 Each one of us holds multiple roles, and sometimes the expectations
of our roles are mutually incompatible—they can’t all be met
5
This can lead to Role conflict:
 Role conflict –
 results from the competing demands of two or more roles that vie for
our time and energy.
 The more statuses we have, and the more roles we take on, the more
likely we are to experience role conflict.
 people in modern societies have so many roles, so they are more likely
to experience role conflict.
For Example:
A working mother is expected at work on time but is late because one of
her children is sick. Her roles as mother and employee are then in conflict.
The role for her mother status dictates that she cares for her sick child,
while the role for her employee status demands that she arrives at work
on time.
Role conflict can also happen if we are doing something we really
don’t want to do.
 People may often distance themselves from roles they don’t really want
to perform
 this is known as role distance
 a way of minimizing role strain associated with something they don’t
want to do but have to.
 They can perform a role while behaving in a distracted manner.
For example
An actor may have to work as a waiter while he is waiting for acting jobs to
come along. He/she will create role distance by telling everyone it is just
temporary until he finds something better.
A person may also be challenged if he is expected to do things that he
doesn’t want to do but is required to by his boss or someone in a more
powerful position.
For example
If you work as a nurse in a hospital you may be required to perform
abortions which may be against your own religious or moral beliefs. If you
don’t do it you may lose your job which you can’t afford to do. So you do
your job even though it is against what you personally believe.
6
(d)
How far do people who live within a culture share the same values?
[8]
Value consensus = shared norms and values
Cultural Values
 A culture's values are its ideas about what is good, right, fair, and
just.
 Conflict theory focuses on how values differ between groups within a
culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared values within a
culture, Consensus
 For example, American sociologist Robert K. Merton suggested that
the most important values in American society are wealth, success,
power, and prestige, but that everyone does not have an equal
opportunity to attain these values.
 Functional sociologist Talcott Parsons noted that Americans share the
common value of the “American work ethic,” which encourages hard
work.
 Other sociologists have proposed a common core of American values,
including accomplishment, material success, problem-solving, reliance
on science and technology, democracy, patriotism, charity, freedom,
equality and justice, individualism, responsibility, and accountability.
Conflicting Values
 A culture, though, may have conflicting values.
 For instance, the value of material success may conflict with the value
of charity.
 Or the value of equality may conflict with the value of individualism.
 Such contradictions may exist due to an inconsistency between
people's actions and their professed values, which explains why
sociologists must carefully distinguish between what people do and
what they say.
 Real culture refers to the values and norms that a society actually
follows, while ideal culture refers to the values and norms that a
society professes to believe.
7
Sociologist look at society in two ways:
The consensus approach
 According to the consensus approach social order and stability depend
on cooperation between individuals and groups who work together for
the same goals.
 Generally, such cooperation occurs in situations where people believe
that they share common interests and goals.
 Functional sociologists for example, believe that society is based on
consensus by which they mean that broad agreement exists among
people on shared norms and values.
 Such consensus arises from the process of socialisation during which
we learn the shared norms and values of our society.
 Functionalists argue that social order is maintained over time because
most people support and agree to abide by the rules.
The conflict approach
 A second approach sees society as characterized by a conflict of
interests between different groups.
 Clashes occur because groups do not share common interests and
goals. Marxists for example, identify conflict between the two main
social classes, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
 The bourgeoisie are the propertied ruling class and the proletariat are
the property-less working class.
 Members of the bourgeoisie own the factories that employ the workers
(the proletariat).
 Class conflict occurs because these two groups have opposing
interests.
 The bourgeoisie want to make more profits while the proletariat want
higher wages.
 Social order and stability are generally maintained, however, partly
because members of the bourgeoisie have the power to enforce order.
Within any culture there is cultural diversity, or the presence of multiple
cultures and cultural differences within a society. In reality, many different
cultural groups make up a society.
Subcultures
 Smaller cultural groups that exist within but differ in some way from
the main culture.
 These groups are called subcultures.
 Examples of some subcultures include “heavy metal” music fans,
8




motorcycle gang members, and Nazi skinheads.
Members of subcultures typically may have a distinctive language, way
of behaving and way of dressing.
Even so they may still accept many of the values of the dominant
culture.
Ethnic groups living in the UK—such as Indian or Chinese —may also
form subcultures.
Most of these adjust to the mainstream culture , but may still retain
many of their cultural customs and in some cases their native ethnic
language.
Countercultures
 A counterculture comes about in opposition to the norms and values
of the dominant culture.
 Members of countercultures—such as hippies and protest groups—are
generally teenagers and young adults, because youth is often a time of
identity crisis and experimentation.
 In time many, but not all, members of countercultures eventually adopt
the norms and values of the dominant culture.
Therefore people in a culture often share some of the same cultural
values. They can also retain their own group or ethnic values which
doesn’t always clash with the main culture but can coexist in
increasing multicultural societies
3. Historical research in Europe suggests that it is only in recent centuries
that childhood has come to be regarded as a distinct and separate stage of
life. This implies that far from being a naturally occurring phenomenon,
childhood is socially constructed.
(a)
What is meant by the term socially constructed?
[2]
Socially constructed may be said to refer to the process by which social roles
are produced through interaction and negotiation between actors
(b)
Describe two examples of how children are treated differently to
adults in modern industrial societies
[4]
family income – in industrial society children's prime responsibility was to
contribute to the family economy as soon as they were able to. Now they are
not expected to contribute to the family income
9
education – for the good of the family as a whole, investment in a child's
education beyond a minimum required level makes sense. Most parents now
see how important education is and are willing to financially children at
school and even at university.
status – children’s status and ranking within the family has risen and their
opinions and ideas are taken into account. Within the home itself children are
expected to do less and less in terms of chores and the goal of many parents
is an improvement in the life-chances of their children.
(c)
Why has childhood come to be regarded as a distinct and separate
stage of life in modern industrial societies?
[6]
Aries (1962) suggested that what we experience today as childhood is a
recent social invention.
He argues that childhood is constructed socially. It was not recognised as a
social category before the twentieth century and, consequently did not exist
as we know it today. However childhood and adolescence are now seen as
separate categories from adulthood
He claimed that in pre-industrial society
 Children were ‘little adults’ who took part in the same economic work
as adults.
 Toys and games didn’t exist
 Children were regarded as an economic asset rather than as a symbol
of love between parents
 These attitudes continued after industrialisation especially among the
working classes whose children often worked very hard in factories,
mines and mills
The Twentieth Century saw the emergence of a child-centred society
 More children survived into adulthood because of improvements in
living standards and nutrition (diet)
 The higher standard of living also made having children more
expensive so people chose to have fewer children
 They invested more time, love, socialisation and protection in them.
10
The Twentieth Century also saw the introduction of legislation aimed at
protecting children
 For example the 1989 Children’s act states that the courts should
always ensure that the child’s welfare must be the most important
thing.
 This means that children now have a legal say in decisions about who
they will live with for example if their parents get a divorce
(d)
To what extent does the experience of childhood vary depending on
factors such as social class, gender and culture?
[8]
Culture
 Culture – a whole way of life that guides our way of thinking and
acting. It provides all of us with the ability to understand and
participate in society.
 Culture is learned. Children learn their culture through socialisation.
 Socialisation is the process of learning how to behave in a society.
Primary socialisation happens early in childhood. This happens mainly
within the family and home.
 Secondary socialisation happens through other agencies.
 Other agencies of socialisation include: mass media (i.e. TV,
newspapers, magazines), schools, peer groups, and religion.
 Children are socialised differently according to their class and gender.
They learn the norms and values of their class
 this will affect their childhood experience and their life chances
Class – mention a couple of these points
 There is often a very close relationship between social class and life
chances.
 The higher the class position of a child’s parents, the more likely the
child is to attain high educational qualifications and a well paid, high
status job.
 Research from Reay shows how middle class mothers are able to
influence their children’s primary schooling more than the working class
mothers.
 This research shows how demands of the working class mothers affect
their time to devote to the children.
11
 Therefore the children will miss out on important socialisation with their
mothers.
 In contemporary society it is clear to see that social class does affect
the socialisation of children.
 The working class families often lack role models and quality time with
their parents
 The upper and middle class also create norms, values and expectations
that pass down through generations.
 Even though class divisions are getting more blurred, socialisation
between these families is still very much present
The importance of Social Class – differences between the life chances of
different classes. You could talk about health and infant mortality.
 Accidents – children born into professional backgrounds were four
times less likely to suffer accidental death than those from unskilled
manual backgrounds according to figures in 1996
 Infant mortality - babies whose fathers are in semi-skilled or
unskilled manual occupations have a higher mortality rate (death rate)
than those from a higher social class
 Health – Children from low-income families are more likely than other
children to have serious health problems. These problems can prevent
poorer children from achieving economic success as adults
 Education - the higher a child’s social class background the more
chance he or she has of achieving high educational qualifications. For
example, in 1990, 81% of university students came from middle class
backgrounds
You could think about class and how it affects childrens’ education
- mention one or two points
Class and education - while education is clearly very important in
determining occupational outcomes, class background continues to play a
role.
 Working-class pupils, on average, do not do as well as middle-class
pupils. One explanation for working-class underachievement could be
due to the home environment.
12
 Although school is free, parent are asked to pay for a lot. Optional
school trips, revision guides, a private tutor are all things that middleclass parents could pay for in order to improve their children’s
understanding of a subject.
 Working-class families struggling to get by may not even have a proper
breakfast in the morning – making it hard for the children to
concentrate in lessons.
 Aside from money, it could also be due to a difference in values.
 Middle-class parents are more likely to put emphasis on higher
education.
 In the end, their children gain higher qualifications and higher status
jobs.
If you have time you could make a few points about gender
Gender
 From the feminist point of view society is patriarchal – male dominated
 This means that males are the leaders of society and exercise control in
a number of areas for example within the family or at work
 Girls are socialised differently from boys they learn to be more passive
and submissive
 At school, girls do better than boys in their studies
 In employment, however, women, earn less and have less chances of
promotion.
13
Section C: Social Stratification and Inequality
4 Despite all the talk about gender equality in employment today, women
still tend to be disadvantaged in terms of earning and job conditions.
(a)
What is meant by the term gender equality?
[2]
Gender equality refers to the equal treatment of men and women in terms of
access to and enjoyment of various benefits and rewards in society
(b)
Describe two ways in which women are discriminated against in
employment.
[4]
Likely answers may focus on:
Relative to male employees, women may experience:
 low wages – women are a cheap source of labour they earn about
20% less than men reflecting the different occupations and lack of
promotion
 poor job conditions – women often have to work in factories where
the job conditions are not very good
 less job security - women often work part-time so that they can fit in
with family obligations this gives them less job security
 greater likelihood of unemployment and redundancy – the lower
paid jobs that women often do there is a bigger chance of being laid
off or fired
 segregation into a narrow range of work tasks based on
stereotypes of traditional female roles – in general most women
are employed in a narrow range of occupations and in work that is
considered to need less skill this covers three main areas:
o clerical
o service work like shop assistants receptionists etc
o professional and technical like nursing or technicians
 less chance of promotion – women’s chances for promotion are less
because they still have to combine the twin roles of mother and
employee. Having time off for having children also affects their
promotion chances.
14
(c)
Why may an employer discriminate against female workers?
[6]
 Women form about half the workforce today yet they are seriously
under-represented in management and the higher levels of the
professions (such as medicine and law)
 They earn on average about 80% of men’s wages
 They are far more likely to be in part-time work than men
 They are more likely to be concentrated in a few areas of employment,
particularly clerical and caring work (like nursing) and the service
industries
Reasons why an employer may discriminate against female employees
include:
personal prejudice – a lot of male employers may be wary about giving
women promotion because they believe that they will leave their jobs at
some point to have children and this will cause disruption. They might also
have to take more time off to care for children if they are sick
economic factors – employers often exploit female workers by giving them
less hours and less money.
Fear – employers are worried that if they treat female workers too well there
might be an adverse reaction from male employees or the male dominated
trade unions which could affect their business.
REMEMBER
UK is still a patriarchal society.
Even though women now dominate the workforce they are still discriminated
against and treated very badly in relation to men.
(d)
How far may the inequality experienced by women in paid
employment be explained in terms of the position they occupy
within the home?
[8]
Introduction
 Feminist researchers are interested in examining the position and role of
women in society in relation to men.
 From the feminist point of view society is patriarchal this refers to the
domination of society and institutions within it (such as the family) by
men
 This means that males are the leaders of society and exercise control in
a number of areas for example within the family or at work
15
 Girls are socialised differently from boys they learn to be more passive
and submissive
 At school, girls do better than boys in their studies
 In employment, however, women, earn less and have less chances of
promotion
The Status of women
 The status of most women within the family parallels (is the same as)
the status that they hold in the job market
 Women, earn no money for the jobs that they perform in terms of
housework and child rearing, although these jobs are necessary for the
survival of the family
 Despite the importance of such work, Women’s work in the home and
the childcare that they do is not valued by society they should really be
paid for doing it
 Men can earn money outside the home this gives them a higher status
position within the family
 The fact that women can’t go out to work adds to their dependence
within the family
 Gender inequality is historically related to the subordinate (lower)
position of women within the family in terms of rule making and control
of resources (e.g., money).
 The person in the family who earns the money has the power
 This relationship is continued within the job market where historically
men have secured the best positions by making the rules (controlling
management and labour) and by receiving unequal (greater) rewards.
 The dominant partner in any social relationship can maintain power by
a combination of control over decision making processes and control of
wealth
Women who work
 women are likely to earn less than men
 women are likely to have less job security than men
 women are less likely to be promoted than men
 women are more likely to experience poverty than men
Women who don’t work
 Some married women who do not work experience a kind of hidden
poverty
 Their husbands may earn an adequate wage but only give his wife a
small amount for running the household
16
 So for example she may go without herself to make sure the children
are fed and clothed
 A woman may be poor in a household with an income above the
poverty line or she may be more deeply in poverty than the rest of her
family
5. The discrimination experienced by some minority ethnic groups may in
part be linked to the way that they are stereotyped by the majority
population.
(a)
What is meant by the term stereotypes?
[2]
A stereotype is a fixed, narrow conception of an individual or group, usually
prejudicial and generally resistant to easy change.
(b)
Describe two examples of stereotypes that may be applied to
minority ethnic groups.
[4]
Negative connotations are often applied, such as:
Lazy – ethnic minorities don’t work, they just take money from the
government
culturally inferior – people from ethnic minorities may have different
religious or cultural beliefs which seem ‘strange’ and so are seen as less
valid than the popular culture in UK
criminals and parasites - people from ethnic minority groups are more
likely to commit crime and are a danger to society
an economic burden on the rest of society – people from ethnic
minority groups just come to UK and rely on the government to provide them
with housing and welfare and don’t contribute to the country in any
productive way
less moral – they may have different norms and values which may be
regarded as less moral by the dominant culture
(c)
In what ways may some ethnic minority groups be discriminated
against?
[6]
Discrimination
There are a number of areas in which ethnic minorities are discriminated
against
Employment
17




Overall ethnic minorities are found in lower level jobs
A fewer percentage are in Managerial positions
They do more shift work and part-time work
They have less chances for promotion
Housing
 They live in the worst areas
 They live in the worst accommodation
 With the highest rates of overcrowding
Education
 There is discrimination in the attitudes of teachers. It is important to
motivate students – often teachers have lower expectations of certain
ethnic groups so they don’t do very well
 there is discrimination in the process of streaming and options choices
for ethnic minorities so they don’t have a fair chance to do well in
school
Welfare
 ethnic minorities are less likely to use health services especially older
people possibly because they don’t speak English
 most of the welfare agencies don’t provide a translator so that ethnic
minorities can understand what is available to them
The media
 The media doesn’t always reflect the multicultural nature of the country
 There are few role models in terms of presenters from ethnic minorities
 There are few programmes that reflect the lifestyle or culture of ethnic
minorities
 Media content does not address particularly minority audiences and it is
almost never in minority languages.
Even though there have been various government attempts to eliminate
discrimination such as the Passing of the Race Relations Act in 1965 It is
difficult to change attitudes held deep within the culture
(d)
What social factors are most important in explaining the inequality
experienced by some minority ethnic groups?
[8]
Members of minority ethnic groups are more likely than the rest of the
population to:
 Leave school without qualifications
18
 To be unemployed
 To be living in poverty
 Many social factors such as economic deprivation, poor educational
attainment and discrimination in the work place explain the
inequality experienced by minority ethnic groups
 Ethnic minorities are often disadvantaged in all these areas, this greatly
affects their life chances:
Economic Deprivation (Poverty)
 People from ethnic minority groups are more likely to have a lower
income than the white majority
 Poverty among ethnic minority groups is linked to:
o Lack of qualifications and skills
o High rates of unemployment
o Low pay when employed
o Living in deprived social environments i.e. areas with poor
housing, failing school etc
Poor Educational Attainment (Education)
 Ethnic groups differ greatly in income, housing standards and level of
job - these inequalities are the often the cause of differences in
educational attainment
 There is evidence that those ethnic groups which do very badly are
those with the highest level of deprivation
 The educational success children is closely related to the educational
standards of the parents
 Students born in Britain may have parents not fluent in English so they
may not have shared cultural values
Discrimination in the work place
 Generally people from ethnic minorities are less likely to be in
professional and managerial positions and more often in lower paid and
routine work.
 They are all under represented in the professions (like law) and senior
management positions
 They are less likely to be promoted
 They are more likely to do shift work and part-time work
 They have higher unemployment rates than the average
 They have lower incomes than the average
19
Ethnic minorities are often used as scapegoats for the problems that
face society generally.
Scapegoating
 In periods of economic decline or social tension certain groups are
picked on to be blamed for the problems of society
 In Britain ethnic minorities are often used as scapegoats for
unemployment, inner city deprivation and high levels of crime
 The idea of scapegoating has been taken further by Marxist
sociologists
 They have suggested that when there is competition among poorer
groups for scarce resources, such as housing and jobs.
 The real reason for deprivation is exploitation by the rich
 However the media encourage poor white people to blame non-whites.

As a result there is hostility between the races that prevents them from
joining together to seek a common solution to their problems
20