Download Europe-through-the-Middle-Ages

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Europe through the
Middle Ages
READING
Barbarian Kingdoms (418 A.D.- 644 A.D.)
After the fall of Rome in 476 A.D., the barbarians who had first tried to join, but later
raided and destroyed parts of the Roman Empire eventually settled into their own civilization
of kingdoms. The area of Rome, in Italy was settled by the Ostrogoths and Lombards. Spain
was settled by a group called the Visigoths. The area of France was settled by the Franks. And
England was settled by the Anglos and the Saxons. It was during this time that the system of
feudalism, with a king ruling a large area, but nobles ruling over individual villages or towns as
part of a manor, took hold across Europe.
King Charlemagne Creates a Frankish Empire (771 A.D.- 814 A.D.)
King Charlemagne was one of Europe's most successful
monarchs during the Middle Ages. He became king of the Franks
when his father died in 768 A.D.. At first, he shared rule of the
kingdom with his brother Carloman, but when his brother died in
771 A.D., he became sole (only) ruler of the Frankish Kingdom.
As King, Charlemagne greatly expanded the size of his
kingdom. The Franks were legendary fighters. Using the strength
and loyalty of his army, combined with his own leadership abilities,
Charlemagne soon defeated most of the other barbarian tribes in
Western Europe. He conquered all of France down to the
Pyrenees mountains, and even into northern Spain. He crossed the
Rhine river and conquered Germany, Switzerland, and Austria,
even into modern Hungary. To the north, he conquered Belgium.
And in 774 A.D. Charlemagne also conquered the Lombards in
northern Italy while helping the Roman Pope Hadrian II. From that point on, Charlemagne
became the protector of the Roman Catholic Church.
When the Frankish Empire went to war, Charlemagne was right there with his soldiers.
He was easy to spot. Besides being so tall (he was 6 foot 4 inches tall), he often wore a blue
cape over his fur coat, which made him appear even larger. He was probably a very visible
target, but, somehow, he managed to survive battle after battle.
One of the most important things Charlemagne did for his people was to introduce a
jury system which allowed for a trial by jury in place of trial by ordeal. When Charlemagne
came to power, under the Frankish Empire, the court system was by something called trial by
ordeal.
In a trial by ordeal, if you were a peasant and you were accused of a crime, to prove
your innocence, you had to hold a red hot metal poker until your hand was deeply burned. If
your burnt hand healed in three days, which it was unlikely to do, you were found innocent. If
it did not, you were guilty and would have to serve your punishment.
If you were a noble, however, you could prove your innocence in a trial by ordeal by a
fight. And, you could hire someone to fight for you. If the person you hired lived, you were
found innocent. If the person you hired died, you were found guilty, but you had paid your
punishment - you had paid with "your" life, so to speak, or at least the life of the person you
had hired - so, you were free to go.
Charlemagne did not think much of this system of justice so, he started a new system trial by panel. Under Charlemagne's system, each accused person would be heard by a panel
of honorable men, men who had taken an oath to listen and to judge fairly based on the
evidence presented. This was something like our jury system today. While there was still some
corruption, this system had a much better chance of being fair than the old one did. Our
modern jury system, trial by jury, is said to have slowly developed from this trial by panel
system.
Another great thing Charlemagne did for the Europe during the Middle Ages was to turn
his castle into a center for learning. He invited scholars and bishops from all over the world to
live at his castle in Aachen, the capital of the Frankish Empire. He used his scholars to create
what were called “illuminated manuscripts” which were books that had decoration or artwork
covered in a thin layer of gold or silver that shined in the light. These manuscripts or books
helped preserved some knowledge during the Dark Ages because these special books were kept
safe.
Charlemagne thought education was important in a time when most people in Europe
were illiterate. Charlemagne learned to read Latin and some Greek but apparently did not
master writing. At meals, instead of having court jesters perform for him, he listened to visiting
scholars read from classic books and writings. Charlemagne believed that government should
be for the benefit of the governed (the people). He did many things to try to improve his
subject’s, the peasants, lives. He set up money standards to encourage commerce (business) and
urged for better farming methods.
From his position north of Italy, Charlemagne was often called on to help out the Popes,
who could no longer count on getting help from the Roman Empire, to defend Rome from
invaders. In exchange, Charlemagne got Pope Leo III in Rome to name him “Emperor of the
West”. On Christmas Day in 800 A.D., while Charlemagne knelt in prayer in Saint Peter’s
Cathedral in Rome, Pope Leo III placed a golden crown on the bowed head of the king making
him the Holy Roman Emperor. Charlemagne is said to have been surprised by the coronation,
declaring that he would not have come into the church had he known the pope’s plan.
However, some historians say the pope would not have done this without Charlemagne's
knowledge and that he actually wanted the title for helping protect the Roman Catholic
Church.
After Charlemagne’s death, however, the Frankish Empire weakened and eventually
became more and more under the control of the Roman Catholic Church in Rome.
Vikings Invade Europe (789 A.D.-1043 A.D.)
Towards the end of the rule of the Frankish Empire, Viking groups from the three
Scandinavian countries in the north, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, began launching raids of
coastal and river-based European towns. At first, they simply sailed in, raided and looted (stole
from) the towns and got back on their boats and sailed off. But over time, Vikings began
settling and conquering land in Europe. The Danish Vikings from Denmark settled in England
and an area of northern France called Normandy. The Norwegian Vikings from Norway settled
on the coast of Ireland and in Iceland. The Swedish Vikings from Sweden settled mostly in an
area of Russia that became known as Kievan Rus. This was the beginning of the civilization that
later grows and becomes Russia.
William the Conqueror rules England (1066 A.D.-1087A.D.)
William the Conqueror was born in the Kingdom of Normandy (in northern France) in
1024 (remember – related to the Danish Vikings from Denmark; not the Franks of France).
During his lifetime, he worked hard to achieve his goal of ruling both England and Normandy,
but he never fully gained the respect of the people in his Kingdoms. His story begins in
Normandy, where Richard II, the 5th Duke of Normandy, and his brother Robert lived.
Richard II suddenly and mysteriously died two years after becoming
Duke of Normandy. His younger brother Robert then took his place
as the new Duke of Normandy. Robert had no legitimate children,
but he did have one son, William, who’s mother was a peasant girl.
Robert never married the girl, so William was what is known as a
bastard or illegitimate child. Considering there was no one directly
in line to succeed Robert, he named his only son, William as his
successor. Since William was only 11 years old when Robert died,
there were lots of arguments and fights within the family over who
should take Robert’s place as Duke of Normandy. The knights and
many nobles of Normandy believed William should take over his
father’s place. But other nobles in Normandy, who had the support
of King Henry of France, strongly believed that a man named King Henry was the rightful heir
to the throne. William, however, was victorious and took his rightful place as Duke of
Normandy. However, he always had to deal with uprisings by unruly nobles because of his
young age and his illegitimacy.
Unsatisfied with only being Duke of Normandy, William believed that, based on his
ancestry, he also had a rightful claim to the English throne. His aunt, Emma (his father’s sister),
was the daughter of Richard I, the 3rd Duke of Normandy. Emma married the King of England,
a man named Ethelred. After Ethelred’s death, in approximately 1016, Canute of Denmark
invaded England and became King of England. King Canute then married Emma as well since
her husband had died. Since Emma, William’s great aunt, was married to two English Kings,
William believed this gave him a hereditary claim to the English throne. Typically, England
chose the heir to the throne by heredity, but it was a group of nobles and church officials that
had the final say as to who was next in line.
After King Canute’s death, the nobles and church officials choose Edward the Confessor,
the last surviving son of the previous King, Ethelred, as the next King of England. Edward, who
had no children, died in 1066. Following his death, the nobles and church officials selected
Harold Godwinssor, the son of a powerful noble, to succeed him instead of William who was
actually blood related to the former queen. Considering he believed he had two legitimate
claims to the English throne (his hereditary claim through his Aunt and he also claimed that
Edward the Confessor had promised him the Kingship), William was very unhappy that he was
not chosen as King.
After Harold Godwnissor became King, both the Norman’s (of Normandy in Northern
France) and the English began preparing for war. Both sides began to increase their navy, and
the English moved a large number of their troops to the South so that they were directly across
the English Channel from the kingdom of Normandy. William the Conqueror, claiming that his
purpose in this war with England was a crusade to reform the English church, appealed to the
Pope in Rome for his approval. Considering the Church’s position in those days, this move gave
William a lot more power and legitimacy when he invaded.
At the end of the summer in 1066, William the Conqueror gave the command for his
ships to head for England. Interestingly, William was not the only person that was, at this time,
headed to England to fight for the crown. Tostig Godwinssor, Harold’s brother and King
Hardroda of Norway decided to join forces and attack England. Neither attacking army
(William’s or Tostig and King Hardroda’s) had any idea of the other’s existence. Harold of
England managed to defeat the combined forces of his brother, Tostig, and King Hardroda.
But, just as they believed they were in the clear, the English received word that William the
Conqueror and his ships had landed in England. William and his army marched onward to the
town of Hastings. England, severely weakened from their previous battle with Tostig and
Norway, was defeated by William the Conqueror and the Normans during The Battle of
Hastings. King Harold Godwinssor died during this battle when he was hit in the eye with an
arrow.
William, now known as William the Conqueror, became ruler over both England and his
Kingdom of Normandy back in northern France. The people of England were unhappy with the
fact that William tricked the Pope into giving his blessing to the invasion. Because of this, he
never gained full support or acceptance from the English people. One great thing William did,
as King, was organize a census. He did this so he could collect taxes from the English people.
After William conquered England in
1066 A.D., he needed a castle to live in when
he was in London. He needed a castle that
would protect London from invaders, but also
a castle that would protect him, William, from
angry English people who didn't like being
conquered. To build his new castle, William
brought some of the stone over on boats all
the way from France, where he had just
finished building a castle at Caen, his home
town back in Normandy.
William built the White Tower, now
known as the Tower of London,
in a
Romanesque style, with rounded arches and
heavy stone walls. The castle had little walls that men could hide behind while they were
shooting arrows at their attackers on top. (Most of the windows you see were added later).
In 1087, following an exhausting and unstable rule, William the Conqueror passed away.
Though he never gained respect for it, he did achieve his goal to be King of both England and
Normandy.
Holy Roman Empire (936 A.D.-1250 A.D.)
After the death of Charlemagne and the weakening of the Frankish Empire under the rule
of his son, Louis the Pious, slowly control of the areas of Germany, Bohemia, Burgundy, and
Italy as well as the Papal States (the home of the Roman Catholic Church) became part of
something called the Holy Roman Empire. This empire was first brought under control by Pope
Otto I around 936 A.D. and lasted until about 1250 A.D., but while the Papal States had a lot
of control over the churches and the religious happenings within the empire, the nobles and
kings in these regions were actually in control of the people and the land in the empire.
The Crusades
The city of Jerusalem was the center of faith for three major world religions. For the
Jews it was their homeland. It had been promised to them by Jehovah, who they believed had
covenanted with Abraham to give him the land of Israel. To the Muslims, Jerusalem was the
location where the Prophet Muhammad had ascended into heaven. After Makkah, and Medina,
Jerusalem was Islam’s third most holy city. To the Christians, Jerusalem was both the location
of Christ’s birth (Bethlehem was near Jerusalem) and the location of his death. It is also the
location of most of the events in the New Testament of their holy book, the Bible.
This Holy Land was conquered by Islam in the A.D. 600s, and had remained in their
control for many centuries. After the Normans had settled in France and conquered England,
both France and England, and also the Holy Roman Empire, were stronger than they had been
since the time of Charlemagne. Their kings and queens began to think, as Charlemagne had, of
reconquering the whole Mediterranean and recreating the Roman Empire. In particular, they
wanted to take Jerusalem, the city of Jesus Christ, away from the Islamic group the Fatimids
who were ruling it and would no longer along European Christians to make pilgrimages there.
In 1095 A.D., Pope Urban made a great speech at Clermont in southern France, where
he urged the people to take up weapons and go fight to free Jerusalem from the rule of the
Muslims. European Christians were wildly enthusiastic. Even children and old women and old
men wanted to go. This crusade was the first of eight total Crusades, that Christians carried out
as they attempted to keep control of the Israel territory.
The crusaders were promised that they would receive eternal life if they died while
fighting non-Christians. As a result of the rhetoric these Christians killed thousands of nonChristians, including Jews and Muslims, as they traveled to Jerusalem. In some cases they
slaughtered entire Jewish communities.
After two years of traveling in the desert, the crusaders finally reached Jerusalem. They
made a siege of the city, surrounding it for two months. Finally they captured the city from the
Muslims, and the crusaders entered, killing almost all of the non-Christians who inhabited the
city, men, women, and children.
Europeans controlled many parts of Israel and the surrounding regions for a little over
200 years. During this time, however, Muslims made slow but steady efforts to regain control
over Jerusalem. Seven more crusades followed, in an effort to keep control over the city in the
hands of the Europeans. But, in 1291 A.D. the Muslims captured the last European stronghold in
the area and regained control of Jerusalem. Over time, European leaders lost interest in the
area, and the crusades came to an end.
The Hundred Years’ War
As we read, the English had been conquered and ruled by a French feudal lord from
Normandy by the name of William The Conqueror. Because William the Conqueror had been
a powerful leader in Normandy, he claimed both England, as well as much of France as his
kingdom. Because of this, later English kings maintained their right to rule parts of France. This
created a great deal of resentment for both the French people, as well as their kings, who
wanted control of their lands back.
In 1328 A.D. when the king of France died without leaving a direct heir the situation
became dangerous. King Edward III of England was the grandson of the former French King. As
such, he was the rightful successor to the French throne. This gave the King Edward III the right
to rule both England and France from a single throne as William had done.
The French were not ready to be ruled by an English King. Feelings between the English
and French were too bitter. A Frenchman by the name of Philip of Valois, known as Philip IV,
who was the nephew of the former king of France became king instead and began preparations
for war with England as King Edward III prepared to come to rule over France. A war broke
out that lasted from 1337 A.D. until 1453 A.D.. It is known as the Hundred Years War.
At first it appeared as though England would win the war. Their superior technology
and strategies led them to victory in a series of battles where they were often out numbered by
the French. Under their new young king Henry V, the English won a especially big battle at
Agincourt in 1415, where Henry’s army used a new weapon, cannons, to help him win the
battle. The English managed to take over almost all of France. Eventually, however the tables
would be turned.
King Henry V died while in Paris, and after he died, the French
started to win again under a great military leader, a woman named
Joan of Arc, who helped recaptured the towns of Orléans and Reims,
among other places, for her king, Charles VII.
Even though the English eventually captured Joan and burned
her alive in Rouen in 1431, the French continued to win the war and
in 1453 the English king Henry VI (the son of Henry V) gave up his
claim to rule France. Henry VI lost all his land in France except the
port at Calais.
After more than one hundred years of fighting, the French
were eventually able to declare victory over the English in the
Hundred Years War.