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Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function Big Ideas • 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today. • 2.C.1: Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments, respond to external changes in environment. • 4.A.6: Interactions among living systems and with their environment result in the movement of matter and energy. Big Ideas • 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today. • 2.C.1: Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments, respond to external changes in environment. • 4.A.6: Interactions among living systems and with their environment result in the movement of matter and energy. Big Ideas • 1.B.1: Organisms share many conserved core processes and features that evolved and are widely distributed among organisms today. • 2.C.1: Organisms use feedback mechanisms to maintain their internal environments, respond to external changes in environment. • 4.A.6: Interactions among living systems and with their environment result in the movement of matter and energy. Illustrative Examples: • Cellular structural similarities across animal kingdom • Methods of cellular control and regulation (e.g. hormones) • Methods of cellular transport (e.g. diffusion, active transport) • Temperature regulation in animals (e.g. negative feedback) • Onset of labor in childbirth (e.g. positive feedback) • Competition for resources, territoriality, health, predation, accumulation of wastes population controls (e.g. natural selection) Mix & Match Review: Ch. 40.1-2 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. 3, 6 1. C/C concepts of positive & negative feedback 2. Describe one homeostatic system including: set point, stimulus, response, feedback type 2, 5, 8 1. Hierarchy of body plans 2. Describe main body tissues 1, 4, 7 1. C/C Physiology & Anatomy 2. Describe ways that internal, external environments connect 3. Physical laws that influence morphology (body shape & size) Mix & Match Review: Ch. 40.1-2 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. homeostasis system exchange cell tissue homeostasis gas free energy + feedback organ system 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. homeostasis glucose concentration information form & function hierarchy Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges • Anatomy is the study of the biological form of an organism • Physiology is the study of the biological functions an organism performs • The comparative study of animals reveals that “form and function” are closely correlated © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.1 “Hay! Here are the key points…” • Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization. • Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals. • Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior. • Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment. Key Point: Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization • Size and shape affect the way an animal interacts with its environment • Many different animal body plans have evolved and are determined by the genome © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Animal Size and Shape • Physical laws constrain strength, diffusion, movement, and heat exchange • As animals increase in size, their skeletons must be proportionately larger to support their mass • Evolutionary convergence reflects different species’ adaptations to a similar environmental challenge © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.2 Seal Penguin Tuna Figure 40.2a Seal Figure 40.2b Penguin Figure 40.2c Tuna Exchange with the Environment • Materials such as nutrients, waste products, and gases must be exchanged across the cell membranes of animal cells • The rate of exchange is proportional to a cell’s surface area while amount of exchange material is proportional to a cell’s volume. Huh? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.3 Mouth Gastrovascular cavity Exchange Exchange Exchange 0.1 mm 1 mm (a) Single cell (b) Two layers of cells • In flat animals such as tapeworms, the distance between cells and the environment is minimized • More complex organisms have highly folded internal surfaces for exchanging materials © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.4a External environment Food CO2 Mouth O2 Animal body Respiratory system Heart Digestive system Nutrients Cells Interstitial fluid Circulatory system Excretory system Anus Unabsorbed matter (feces) Metabolic waste products (nitrogenous waste) Figure 40.4 External environment CO2 O Food 2 Mouth Respiratory system Heart Interstitial fluid Circulatory system Anus Unabsorbed matter (feces) Metabolic waste products (nitrogenous waste) 50 m Excretory system 100 m Lining of small intestine (SEM) Lung tissue (SEM) Cells Digestive system Nutrients 250 m Animal body Blood vessels in kidney (SEM) 100 m Figure 40.4b 250 m Lung tissue (SEM) Lining of small intestine (SEM) Figure 40.4d Blood vessels in kidney (SEM) 50 m Figure 40.4c • In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with interstitial fluid, which allows for the movement of material into and out of cells • A complex body plan helps an animal living in a variable environment to maintain a relatively stable internal environment © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans • Most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into tissues that have different functions • Tissues make up organs, which together make up organ systems • Some organs, such as the pancreas, belong to more than one organ system © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 40.1 Exploring Structure and Function in Animal Tissues • Different tissues have different structures that are suited to their functions • Tissues are classified into four main categories: – – – – Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Nervous © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.5aa Epithelial Tissue Stratified squamous epithelium Cuboidal epithelium Simple columnar epithelium Simple squamous epithelium Pseudostratified columnar epithelium Figure 40.5ba Connective Tissue Loose connective tissue Blood Collagenous fiber Plasma 55 m 120 m White blood cells Elastic fiber Red blood cells Cartilage Fibrous connective tissue 30 m 100 m Chondrocytes Chondroitin sulfate Nuclei Adipose tissue Central canal Fat droplets Osteon 150 m 700 m Bone Figure 40.5ca Muscle Tissue Skeletal muscle Nuclei Muscle fiber Sarcomere 100 m Smooth muscle Nucleus Muscle fibers Cardiac muscle 25 m Nucleus Intercalated disk 50 m Figure 40.5da Nervous Tissue Neurons Glia Glia Neuron: Dendrites Cell body Axons of neurons 40 m Axon Blood vessel (Fluorescent LM) (Confocal LM) 15 m Coordination and Control • Control and coordination within a body depend on the endocrine system and the nervous system • The endocrine system transmits chemical signals called hormones to receptive cells throughout the body via blood • A hormone may affect one or more regions throughout the body • Hormones are relatively slow acting, but can have long-lasting effects © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Illustrative Examples: • Cellular structural similarities across animal kingdom • Methods of cellular control and regulation (e.g. hormones) • Methods of cellular transport (e.g. diffusion, active transport) • Temperature regulation in animals (e.g. negative feedback) • Onset of labor in childbirth (e.g. positive feedback) • Competition for resources, territoriality, health, predation, accumulation of wastes population controls (e.g. natural selection) Figure 40.6 Figure 40.6a • The nervous system transmits information between specific locations • The information conveyed depends on a signal’s pathway, not the type of signal • Nerve signal transmission is very fast • Nerve impulses can be received by neurons, muscle cells, endocrine cells, and exocrine cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.6b “Hay! Here are the key points…” • Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization. • Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals. • Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior. • Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment. Key Point: Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals • Animals manage their internal environment by regulating or conforming to the external environment © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.7 Homeostasis • Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment • In humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration are each maintained at a constant level © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Mechanisms of Homeostasis • Mechanisms of homeostasis moderate changes in the internal environment • For a given variable, fluctuations above or below a set point serve as a stimulus; these are detected by a sensor and trigger a response • The response returns the variable to the set point © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.8 Feedback Control in Homeostasis Negative feedback Positive feedback • Helps to return a variable to a normal range • Most homeostatic control systems function by negative feedback, where buildup of the end product shuts the system off • amplifies a stimulus and does not usually contribute to homeostasis in animals • E.g. Childbirth contractions – Temperature – Blood gases – Blood sugar © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. “Hay! Here are the key points…” • Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization. • Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals. • Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior. • Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment. Illustrative Examples: • Cellular structural similarities across animal kingdom • Methods of cellular control and regulation (e.g. hormones) • Methods of cellular transport (e.g. diffusion, active transport) • Temperature regulation in animals (e.g. negative feedback) • Onset of labor in childbirth (e.g. positive feedback) • Competition for resources, territoriality, health, predation, accumulation of wastes population controls (e.g. natural selection) Mix & Match Review: Ch. 40.3 1. 2. 3. 4. Regulator Conformer Negative feedback Homeostasis 1, 4, 7 1. 2. 3. 4. Ectotherm Endotherm Homeotherm Poikilotherm 2, 5, 8 3, 6 1. ID, describe five thermoregulatory adaptations Key Point: Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior • Thermoregulation is the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Endothermy and Ectothermy • Endothermic animals generate heat by metabolism; birds and mammals are endotherms • Ectothermic animals gain heat from external sources; ectotherms include most invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • In general, ectotherms tolerate greater variation in internal temperature, while endotherms are active at a greater range of external temperatures • Endothermy is more energetically expensive than ectothermy. Why? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.10 Figure 40.10a Figure 40.10b Variation in Body Temperature • The body temperature of a poikilotherm varies with its environment • The body temperature of a homeotherm is relatively constant • The relationship between heat source and body temperature is not fixed (that is, not all poikilotherms are ectotherms) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Balancing Heat Loss and Gain • Organisms exchange heat by four physical processes: – – – – Radiation Evaporation Convection and Conduction © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.11 • Heat regulation in mammals often involves the integumentary system: skin, hair, and nails • Five adaptations help animals thermoregulate: Insulation (blubber, skin, feathers, fur) Circulatory adaptations (vasodilation/constriction; countercurrent exch.) Cooling by evaporative heat loss (sweat) Behavioral responses (shivering, migration, basking) Adjusting metabolic heat production (C.R.) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.12 Figure 40.13 Figure 40.14 Figure 40.15 Acclimatization in Thermoregulation • Birds and mammals: – can vary their insulation to acclimatize to seasonal temperature changes • Certain ectotherms: – e.g. arctic fish produce “antifreeze” compounds to prevent ice formation in their cells © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Physiological Thermostats and Fever • Thermoregulation is controlled by a region of the brain called the hypothalamus • The hypothalamus triggers heat loss or heat generating mechanisms • Fever is the result of a change to the set point for a biological thermostat © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.16 Figure 40.16a Figure 40.16b “Hay! Here are the key points…” • Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization. • Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals. • Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior. • Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment. Illustrative Examples: • Cellular structural similarities across animal kingdom • Methods of cellular control and regulation (e.g. hormones) • Methods of cellular transport (e.g. diffusion, active transport) • Temperature regulation in animals (e.g. negative feedback) • Onset of labor in childbirth (e.g. positive feedback) • Competition for resources, territoriality, health, predation, accumulation of wastes population controls (e.g. natural selection) Mix & Match Review: Ch. 40.4 1. Explain the relationship between: size and metabolic rate 1, 4, 7 1. Explain the relationship between: activity and metabolic rate 2, 5, 8 3, 6 1. Compare (2) and contrast (2) torpor with hibernation Key Point: Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment. • Bioenergetics is the overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal • It determines how much food an animal needs and it relates to an animal’s size, activity, and environment © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Bioenergetics Gross consumption (input) -biosynthesis (output) = Surplus energy Figure 40.17 Quantifying Energy Use • Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time • Metabolic rate can be determined by – An animal’s heat loss – The amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. AP Lab #5 Influences on Metabolic Rate • Metabolic rates are affected by many factors besides whether an animal is an endotherm or ectotherm • Two of these factors are size and activity level © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.19a Figure 40.19b Energy Budgets • Different species use energy and materials in food in different ways, depending on their environment • Use of energy is partitioned to BMR (or SMR), activity, thermoregulation, growth, and reproduction © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 40.20 Figure 40.20a Figure 40.20b Torpor and Energy Conservation • Torpor is a physiological state in which activity is low and metabolism decreases • Torpor enables animals to save energy while avoiding difficult and dangerous conditions • Hibernation is long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. “Hay! Here are the key points…” • Animal form and function are correlated at all levels of organization. • Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals. • Homeostatic processes for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior. • Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity, and environment. Practice Quiz Questions (Campbell) • • • • • • #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #10